Entorhinal cortex: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|Area of the temporal lobe of the brain}}{{Infobox brain | {{short description|Area of the temporal lobe of the brain}}{{Infobox brain | ||
| Name = Entorhinal cortex | | Name = Entorhinal cortex | ||
| Latin = cortex entorhinalis | | Latin = cortex entorhinalis | ||
| Image = Gray-Brodman-Entorhinal Cortex EC .png | | Image = Gray-Brodman-Entorhinal Cortex EC .png | ||
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==Function== | ==Function== | ||
===Neuron information processing=== | ===Neuron information processing=== | ||
In 2005, it was discovered that entorhinal cortex contains a [[Cognitive map|neural map]] of the spatial environment in rats.<ref name="Hafting">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hafting T, Fyhn M, Molden S, Moser M, Moser E |s2cid=4405184 |title=Microstructure of a spatial map in the entorhinal cortex |journal=Nature |volume=436 |issue=7052 |pages=801–6 |year=2005 |pmid=15965463 | doi = 10.1038/nature03721 |bibcode=2005Natur.436..801H}}</ref> In 2014, John O'Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]], partly because of this discovery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Overview of Nobel Prize laureates in Physiology or Medicine|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/}}</ref> | In 2005, it was discovered that entorhinal cortex contains a [[Cognitive map|neural map]] of the spatial environment in rats.<ref name="Hafting">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hafting T, Fyhn M, Molden S, Moser M, Moser E |s2cid=4405184 |title=Microstructure of a spatial map in the entorhinal cortex |journal=Nature |volume=436 |issue=7052 |pages=801–6 |year=2005 |pmid=15965463 | doi = 10.1038/nature03721 |bibcode=2005Natur.436..801H}}</ref> In 2014, John O'Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]], partly because of this discovery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Overview of Nobel Prize laureates in Physiology or Medicine|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/}}</ref> Grid-cell-like signals were subsequently identified in the human entorhinal cortex: Doeller, [[Caswell Barry|Barry]] and Burgess (2010) used [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] to detect a sixfold rotational symmetry in entorhinal BOLD signal as human participants navigated a virtual environment, consistent with a population of grid-like cells operating during human spatial behaviour.<ref name="doellerEC">{{cite journal |last1=Doeller |first1=Christian F. |last2=Barry |first2=Caswell |last3=Burgess |first3=Neil |title=Evidence for grid cells in a human memory network |journal=Nature |volume=463 |issue=7281 |pages=657–661 |year=2010 |doi=10.1038/nature08704 |pmid=20090680 |pmc=3173857}}</ref> | ||
In rodents, neurons in the lateral entorhinal cortex exhibit little spatial selectivity,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hargreaves E, Rao G, Lee I, Knierim J |s2cid=24399770 |title=Major dissociation between medial and lateral entorhinal input to dorsal hippocampus |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5729 |pages=1792–4 |year=2005 |pmid=15961670 |doi=10.1126/science.1110449|bibcode = 2005Sci...308.1792H }}</ref> whereas neurons of the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC), exhibit multiple "place fields" that are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, and are, therefore, called "[[grid cells]]". These fields and spacing between fields increase from the dorso-lateral MEA to the ventro-medial MEA.<ref name="Hafting" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fyhn M, Molden S, Witter M, Moser E, Moser M |title=Spatial representation in the entorhinal cortex |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5688 |pages=1258–64 |year=2004 |pmid=15333832 |doi=10.1126/science.1099901 |bibcode=2004Sci...305.1258F|doi-access= }}</ref> | In rodents, neurons in the lateral entorhinal cortex exhibit little spatial selectivity,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hargreaves E, Rao G, Lee I, Knierim J |s2cid=24399770 |title=Major dissociation between medial and lateral entorhinal input to dorsal hippocampus |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5729 |pages=1792–4 |year=2005 |pmid=15961670 |doi=10.1126/science.1110449|bibcode = 2005Sci...308.1792H }}</ref> whereas neurons of the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC), exhibit multiple "place fields" that are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, and are, therefore, called "[[grid cells]]". These fields and spacing between fields increase from the dorso-lateral MEA to the ventro-medial MEA.<ref name="Hafting" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fyhn M, Molden S, Witter M, Moser E, Moser M |title=Spatial representation in the entorhinal cortex |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5688 |pages=1258–64 |year=2004 |pmid=15333832 |doi=10.1126/science.1099901 |bibcode=2004Sci...305.1258F|doi-access= }}</ref> | ||
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The same group of researchers has found speed cells in the medial entorhinal cortex of rats. The speed of movement is translated from proprioceptive information and is represented as firing rates in these cells. The cells are known to fire in correlation to future speed of the rodent.<ref name="Kropff">{{cite journal |author1=Kropff Em |author2=Carmichael J E |author3=Moser M-B |author4=Moser E-I |s2cid=4404374 | year = 2015 | title = Speed cells in the medial entorhinal cortex | journal = Nature | volume = 523 |issue=7561 | pages = 419–424 | doi = 10.1038/nature14622 |pmid=26176924 |bibcode = 2015Natur.523..419K |hdl=11336/10493 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> | The same group of researchers has found speed cells in the medial entorhinal cortex of rats. The speed of movement is translated from proprioceptive information and is represented as firing rates in these cells. The cells are known to fire in correlation to future speed of the rodent.<ref name="Kropff">{{cite journal |author1=Kropff Em |author2=Carmichael J E |author3=Moser M-B |author4=Moser E-I |s2cid=4404374 | year = 2015 | title = Speed cells in the medial entorhinal cortex | journal = Nature | volume = 523 |issue=7561 | pages = 419–424 | doi = 10.1038/nature14622 |pmid=26176924 |bibcode = 2015Natur.523..419K |hdl=11336/10493 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> | ||
Recently, a general theory has been proposed to elucidate the function of the [[reelin]] positive cells in the layer II of the entorhinal cortex. According to this concept, these cells would be generally organized into 1-dimensional ring attractors, and in the ''medial'' (in humans: ''posteromedial'') portion, would function as [[grid cells]] (anatomically: stellate cells) while in ''lateral'' (in humans: ''anterolateral'') portion, where they appear as fan cells, would enable the encoding of new episodic memories.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kovács KA | title = Episodic Memories: How do the Hippocampus and the Entorhinal Ring Attractors Cooperate to Create Them? | journal = Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | volume = 14 | page = 68 | date = September 2020 | doi = 10.3389/fnsys.2020.559186 | pmid = 33013334 | pmc = 7511719 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This concept is underscored by the fact that fan cells of the entorhinal cortex are indispensable for the formation of episodic-like memories in rodents.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vandrey B, Garden DL, Ambrozova V, McClure C, Nolan MF, Ainge JA | title = Fan cells in layer 2 of the lateral entorhinal cortex are critical for episodic-like memory. | journal = Current Biology | volume = 30 | pages = 169–175.e5 | date = January 2020 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2019.11.027 | pmid = 31839450 | pmc = 6947484 | doi-access = free }}</ref> | Recently, a general theory has been proposed to elucidate the function of the [[reelin]] positive cells in the layer II of the entorhinal cortex. According to this concept, these cells would be generally organized into 1-dimensional ring attractors, and in the ''medial'' (in humans: ''posteromedial'') portion, would function as [[grid cells]] (anatomically: stellate cells) while in ''lateral'' (in humans: ''anterolateral'') portion, where they appear as fan cells, would enable the encoding of new episodic memories.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kovács KA | title = Episodic Memories: How do the Hippocampus and the Entorhinal Ring Attractors Cooperate to Create Them? | journal = Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | volume = 14 | page = 68 | date = September 2020 | article-number = 559168 | doi = 10.3389/fnsys.2020.559186 | pmid = 33013334 | pmc = 7511719 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This concept is underscored by the fact that fan cells of the entorhinal cortex are indispensable for the formation of episodic-like memories in rodents.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vandrey B, Garden DL, Ambrozova V, McClure C, Nolan MF, Ainge JA | title = Fan cells in layer 2 of the lateral entorhinal cortex are critical for episodic-like memory. | journal = Current Biology | volume = 30 | pages = 169–175.e5 | date = January 2020 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2019.11.027 | pmid = 31839450 | pmc = 6947484 | doi-access = free }}</ref> | ||
[[Single-unit recording]] of neurons in humans playing [[video game]]s find path cells in the EC, the activity of which indicates whether a person is taking a clockwise or counterclockwise path. Such EC "direction" path cells show this directional activity irrespective of the location of where a person experiences themselves, which contrasts them to place cells in the hippocampus, which are activated by specific locations.<ref name="Jacobs">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacobs J, Kahana MJ, Ekstrom AD, Mollison MV, Fried I | year = 2010 | title = A sense of direction in human entorhinal cortex | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 107 | issue = 14| pages = 6487–6492 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0911213107 | pmid = 20308554 | pmc=2851993|bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.6487J | doi-access = free }}</ref> | [[Single-unit recording]] of neurons in humans playing [[video game]]s find path cells in the EC, the activity of which indicates whether a person is taking a clockwise or counterclockwise path. Such EC "direction" path cells show this directional activity irrespective of the location of where a person experiences themselves, which contrasts them to place cells in the hippocampus, which are activated by specific locations.<ref name="Jacobs">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacobs J, Kahana MJ, Ekstrom AD, Mollison MV, Fried I | year = 2010 | title = A sense of direction in human entorhinal cortex | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 107 | issue = 14| pages = 6487–6492 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0911213107 | pmid = 20308554 | pmc=2851993|bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.6487J | doi-access = free }}</ref> | ||
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Research generally highlights a useful distinction in which the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) mainly supports processing of space,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cellular mechanisms of spatial navigation in the medial entorhinal cortex|journal=Nature|volume=16|issue=3|pages=325–331|doi=10.1038/nn.3340|pmid=23396102|year=2013|last1=Schmidt-Hieber|first1=Christoph|last2=Häusser|first2=Michael|s2cid=13774938}}</ref> whereas the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) mainly supports the processing of time.<ref name=":0" /> | Research generally highlights a useful distinction in which the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) mainly supports processing of space,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cellular mechanisms of spatial navigation in the medial entorhinal cortex|journal=Nature|volume=16|issue=3|pages=325–331|doi=10.1038/nn.3340|pmid=23396102|year=2013|last1=Schmidt-Hieber|first1=Christoph|last2=Häusser|first2=Michael|s2cid=13774938}}</ref> whereas the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) mainly supports the processing of time.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
The MEC exhibits a strong ~8 Hz [[Neural oscillation|rhythmic neural activity]] known as [[Theta wave|theta]]. Alterations in the neural activity across the brain region results in an observed "[[traveling wave]]" phenomena across the MEC long-axis, similar to that of the [[hippocampus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lubenov |first1=Evgueniy V. |last2=Siapas |first2=Athanassios G. |s2cid=4429491 |title=Hippocampal theta oscillations are travelling waves |journal=Nature |date=17 May 2009 |volume=459 |issue=7246 |pages=534–539 |doi=10.1038/nature08010|pmid=19489117 |bibcode=2009Natur.459..534L |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/14755/1/Lubenov2009p4508Nature.pdf }}</ref> due to asymmetric theta oscillations.<ref name="pmid32057292">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hernández-Pérez JJ, Cooper KW, Newman EL| title=Medial entorhinal cortex activates in a traveling wave in the rat. | journal=eLife | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | pmid=32057292 | doi=10.7554/eLife.52289 | pmc=7046467 | doi-access=free }} </ref> The underlying cause of these phase shifts and their waveform changes is unknown. | The MEC exhibits a strong ~8 Hz [[Neural oscillation|rhythmic neural activity]] known as [[Theta wave|theta]]. Alterations in the neural activity across the brain region results in an observed "[[traveling wave]]" phenomena across the MEC long-axis, similar to that of the [[hippocampus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lubenov |first1=Evgueniy V. |last2=Siapas |first2=Athanassios G. |s2cid=4429491 |title=Hippocampal theta oscillations are travelling waves |journal=Nature |date=17 May 2009 |volume=459 |issue=7246 |pages=534–539 |doi=10.1038/nature08010|pmid=19489117 |bibcode=2009Natur.459..534L |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/14755/1/Lubenov2009p4508Nature.pdf }}</ref> due to asymmetric theta oscillations.<ref name="pmid32057292">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hernández-Pérez JJ, Cooper KW, Newman EL| title=Medial entorhinal cortex activates in a traveling wave in the rat. | journal=eLife | year= 2020 | volume= 9 | article-number=e52289 | pmid=32057292 | doi=10.7554/eLife.52289 | pmc=7046467 | doi-access=free }} </ref> The underlying cause of these phase shifts and their waveform changes is unknown. | ||
Individual variation in the volume of EC is linked to taste perception. People with a larger EC in the left hemisphere found [[quinine]], the source of bitterness in [[tonic water]], less bitter.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hwang LD, Strike LT, Couvy-Duchesne B, de Zubicaray GI, McMahon K, Bresline PA, Reed DR, Martin NG, Wright MJ | year = 2019 | title = Associations between brain structure and perceived intensity of sweet and bitter tastes | journal = Behav. Brain Res. | volume = 2 |issue=363 | pages = 103–108 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.046 |pmid= 30703394 | pmc = 6470356 }}</ref> | Individual variation in the volume of EC is linked to taste perception. People with a larger EC in the left hemisphere found [[quinine]], the source of bitterness in [[tonic water]], less bitter.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hwang LD, Strike LT, Couvy-Duchesne B, de Zubicaray GI, McMahon K, Bresline PA, Reed DR, Martin NG, Wright MJ | year = 2019 | title = Associations between brain structure and perceived intensity of sweet and bitter tastes | journal = Behav. Brain Res. | volume = 2 |issue=363 | pages = 103–108 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.046 |pmid= 30703394 | pmc = 6470356 }}</ref> | ||
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==Clinical significance== | ==Clinical significance== | ||
===Alzheimer's disease=== | ===Alzheimer's disease=== | ||
The entorhinal cortex is the first area of the brain to be affected in [[Alzheimer's disease]]; in year 2013, a [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] study has localised the area to the lateral entorhinal cortex.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Khan UA, Liu L, Provenzano FA, Berman DE, Profaci CP, Sloan R, Mayeux R, Duff KE, Small SA |year=2013|title=Molecular drivers and cortical spread of lateral entorhinal cortex dysfunction in preclinical Alzheimer's disease|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]]|doi=10.1038/nn.3606|volume=17|issue=2|pages=304–311|pmc=4044925|pmid=24362760}}</ref> Lopez ''et al.''<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lopez|first1=M. E.|last2=Bruna|first2=R.|last3=Aurtenetxe|first3=S.|last4=Pineda-Pardo|first4=J. A.|last5=Marcos|first5=A.|last6=Arrazola|first6=J.|last7=Reinoso|first7=A. I.|last8=Montejo|first8=P.|last9=Bajo|first9=R.|last10=Maestu|first10=F.|title=Alpha-Band Hypersynchronization in Progressive Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Magnetoencephalography Study|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|date=2014|volume=34|issue=44|pages=14551–14559|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0964-14.2014|pmid=25355209|pmc=6608420}}</ref> have shown, in a multimodal study, that there are differences in the volume of the left entorhinal cortex between progressing (to Alzheimer's disease) and stable mild cognitive impairment patients. These authors also found that the volume of the left entorhinal cortex inversely correlates with the level of alpha band phase synchronization between the right anterior cingulate and temporo-occipital regions. | The entorhinal cortex is the first area of the brain to be affected in [[Alzheimer's disease]]; in year 2013, a [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] study has localised the area to the lateral entorhinal cortex.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Khan UA, Liu L, Provenzano FA, Berman DE, Profaci CP, Sloan R, Mayeux R, Duff KE, Small SA |year=2013|title=Molecular drivers and cortical spread of lateral entorhinal cortex dysfunction in preclinical Alzheimer's disease|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]]|doi=10.1038/nn.3606|volume=17|issue=2|pages=304–311|pmc=4044925|pmid=24362760}}</ref> More recently, a particular group of neurons called [[fan cells]] have been proposed to be first neurons suffering Alzheimer's-related damage <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kovács KA | title = Relevance of a Novel Circuit-Level Model of Episodic Memories to Alzheimer's Disease | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 462 | date = December 2021 | doi = 10.3390/ijms23010462 | pmid = 35008886 | pmc = 8745479 | doi-access = free }}</ref> in the lateral entorhinal cortex. | ||
Lopez ''et al.''<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lopez|first1=M. E.|last2=Bruna|first2=R.|last3=Aurtenetxe|first3=S.|last4=Pineda-Pardo|first4=J. A.|last5=Marcos|first5=A.|last6=Arrazola|first6=J.|last7=Reinoso|first7=A. I.|last8=Montejo|first8=P.|last9=Bajo|first9=R.|last10=Maestu|first10=F.|title=Alpha-Band Hypersynchronization in Progressive Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Magnetoencephalography Study|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|date=2014|volume=34|issue=44|pages=14551–14559|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0964-14.2014|pmid=25355209|pmc=6608420}}</ref> have shown, in a multimodal study, that there are differences in the volume of the left entorhinal cortex between progressing (to Alzheimer's disease) and stable mild cognitive impairment patients. These authors also found that the volume of the left entorhinal cortex inversely correlates with the level of alpha band phase synchronization between the right anterior cingulate and temporo-occipital regions. | |||
In 2012, neuroscientists at [[UCLA]] conducted an experiment using a virtual taxi video game connected to seven epilepsy patients with electrodes already implanted in their brains, allowing the researchers to monitor neuronal activity whenever memories were being formed. As the researchers stimulated the nerve fibers of each of the patients' entorhinal cortex as they were learning, they were then able to better navigate themselves through various routes and recognize landmarks more quickly. This signified an improvement in the patients' spatial memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Suthana|first1=N.|last2=Haneef|first2=Z.|last3=Stern|first3=J.|last4=Mukamel|first4=R.|last5=Behnke|first5=E.|last6=Knowlton|first6=B.|last7=Fried|first7=I.|year=2012|title=Memory Enhancement and Deep-Brain Stimulation of the Entorhinal Area|journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]]|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1107212|volume=366|issue=6|pages=502–510|pmc=3447081|pmid=22316444}}</ref> | In 2012, neuroscientists at [[UCLA]] conducted an experiment using a virtual taxi video game connected to seven epilepsy patients with electrodes already implanted in their brains, allowing the researchers to monitor neuronal activity whenever memories were being formed. As the researchers stimulated the nerve fibers of each of the patients' entorhinal cortex as they were learning, they were then able to better navigate themselves through various routes and recognize landmarks more quickly. This signified an improvement in the patients' spatial memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Suthana|first1=N.|last2=Haneef|first2=Z.|last3=Stern|first3=J.|last4=Mukamel|first4=R.|last5=Behnke|first5=E.|last6=Knowlton|first6=B.|last7=Fried|first7=I.|year=2012|title=Memory Enhancement and Deep-Brain Stimulation of the Entorhinal Area|journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]]|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1107212|volume=366|issue=6|pages=502–510|pmc=3447081|pmid=22316444}}</ref> | ||
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In rodents, the EC is located at the [[Caudal (anatomical term)|caudal]] end of the [[temporal lobe]]. The rodent entorhinal cortex shows a modular organization, with different properties and connections in different areas. | In rodents, the EC is located at the [[Caudal (anatomical term)|caudal]] end of the [[temporal lobe]]. The rodent entorhinal cortex shows a modular organization, with different properties and connections in different areas. | ||
In primates it is located at the [[Anatomical terms of location# | In primates it is located at the [[Anatomical terms of location#Rostal, cranial and caudal|rostral]] end of the temporal lobe and stretches dorsolaterally. | ||
== Additional images == | == Additional images == | ||