Book of Genesis: Difference between revisions

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{{~~short~~ description|First book of the ~~Hebrew~~ Bible ~~and the Christian Old Testament~~}}

{{redirect|The Book of Genesis|the comic|The Book of Genesis (comic){{!}}''The Book of Genesis'' (comic)}}

[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 001.png|thumb|Illustration of the creation of light, as stated in Genesis 1:3.{{efn|Verse can be found here: https://biblehub.com/genesis/1-3.htm}} By [[Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld]], 1860.]]

The '''Book of Genesis''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Langx|grc|Γένεσις|Génesis|label=none}}; {{langx|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּרֵאשִׁית}}|Bərēʾšīṯ|In [the] ~~beginning~~}}; {{langx|la|Liber Genesis}}) is the first book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the Christian [[Old Testament]].{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=1}} ~~Its~~ Hebrew name ~~is the same as its [[incipit|first word]],~~ {{transliteration|hbo|~~Bereshit~~}} ([[In the beginning (phrase)|'In the beginning']]). Genesis ~~purports to be an~~ account of the [[Genesis creation narrative|creation of the world]], the early history of ~~humanity~~, and the [[Jews#Origins|origins of the Jewish people]].{{sfn|Sweeney|2012|p=657}} In [[Judaism]], the theological importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking [[God in Judaism|God]] to his chosen people and the people to the [[Promised Land]].

The '''Book of Genesis''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Langx|grc|Γένεσις|Génesis|Origin|label=none}}; {{langx|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּרֵאשִׁית}}|Bərēʾšīṯ|In [the] Beginning}}; {{langx|la|Liber Genesis}}) is the first book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the Christian [[Old Testament]].{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=1}} The Hebrew name {{transliteration|hbo|bereshit}} ([[In the beginning (phrase)|'in the beginning']]) is taken directly from the [[incipit|first word]]. The primary narrative of Genesis includes a legendary account of the [[Genesis creation narrative|creation of the world]], the early history of the human race, and the [[Jews#Origins|origins of the Jewish people]].{{sfn|Sweeney|2012|p=657}} In [[Judaism]], the theological importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking [[God in Judaism|God]] to his chosen people and the people to the [[Promised Land]].

Genesis is part of the [[Torah]] ~~or Pentateuch~~, the first five books of the Bible. Tradition credits [[Moses]] as the Torah's author. However, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed several centuries later, after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BC.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} Based on the scientific interpretation of [[Archaeology|archaeological]], [[Genetics|genetic]], and linguistic evidence, mainstream biblical scholars consider Genesis to be primarily [[Myth|mythological]] rather than [[History|historical]].

Genesis is part of the [[Torah]], the first five books of the Bible (or ''Pentateuch''). Tradition credits [[Moses]] as the Torah's author. However, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed several centuries later, after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BCE.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} Based on the scientific interpretation of [[Archaeology|archaeological]], [[Genetics|genetic]], and linguistic evidence, mainstream [[biblical scholars]] consider Genesis to be primarily [[Myth|mythological]] rather than [[History|historical]].

It is divisible into two parts, the [[primeval history]] (chapters 1–11) and the [[Patriarchal age|ancestral history]] (chapters 12–50).{{sfn|Bergant|2013|p=xii}} The primeval history sets out the author's concepts of the nature of the deity and of ~~humankind~~'s relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for humans, but when ~~man~~ corrupts it with sin, ~~God~~ decides to destroy his creation, sparing only the righteous [[Noah]] and his family to re-establish the relationship between man and God.{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=35}}

It is divisible into two parts: the [[primeval history]] (chapters 1–11) and the [[Patriarchal age|ancestral history]] (chapters 12–50).{{sfn|Bergant|2013|p=xii}} The primeval history sets out the author's concepts of the nature of the deity and of humanity's relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for humans, and God creates a garden for [[Adam and Eve]], but when humanity corrupts the world with sin, he decides to destroy his creation, sparing only the righteous [[Noah]] and his family to re-establish the relationship between man and God.{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=35}}

The ancestral history (chapters 12–50) tells of the prehistory of [[Israelites|Israel]], God's [[Jews as the chosen people|chosen people]].{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=78}} At God's command, Noah's descendant [[Abraham]] journeys from his birthplace (described as [[Ur of the Chaldeans]] and whose identification with [[Ur|Sumerian Ur]] is [[Ur#Identification with the Biblical Ur|tentative in modern scholarship]]) into ~~the~~ God-given land of [[Canaan]], where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son [[Isaac]] and his grandson [[Jacob]]. Jacob's name is changed to "Israel", and through the agency of his son [[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], the [[children of Israel]] descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] (departure). The narrative is punctuated by a series of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenants]] with God, successively narrowing in scope from all ~~humankind~~ (the [[covenant with Noah]]) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}

The ancestral history (chapters 12–50) tells of the prehistory of [[Israelites|Israel]], God's [[Jews as the chosen people|chosen people]].{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=78}} At God's command, Noah's descendant [[Abraham]] journeys from his birthplace (described as [[Ur of the Chaldeans]] and whose identification with [[Ur|Sumerian Ur]] is [[Ur#Identification with the Biblical Ur|tentative in modern scholarship]]) into God-given land of [[Canaan]], where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son [[Isaac]] and his grandson [[Jacob]]. Jacob's name is changed to [[Israel (name)|"Israel"]], and through the agency of his son [[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], the children of Israel descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] (departure). The narrative is punctuated by a series of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenants]] with God, successively narrowing in scope from all peoples (the [[covenant with Noah]]) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}

== Title ==

[[File:Lieber des Ghetto 18.jpg|thumb|''The Creation of Man'' by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]], 1903.]]

[[File:Lieber des Ghetto 18.jpg|thumb|''The Creation of Man'' by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]], 1903]]

The name ''Genesis'' is from the Latin [[Vulgate]], in turn borrowed or transliterated from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Lang|grc|Γένεσις}}, meaning 'origin'; ~~{{langx~~|~~hbo~~|בְּרֵאשִׁית~~|Bərēʾšīṯ}}~~, 'In [the] beginning'.{{sfn|Carr|2000|p=491}}

The name ''Genesis'' is from the Latin [[Vulgate]], in turn borrowed or transliterated from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Lang|grc|Γένεσις}}, meaning 'origin', which is the name of the book in the [[Septuagint]]; in Hebrew, consistent with the naming convention for the [[Torah|Pentateuch]], the book is titled by [[Incipit|its first word]], בְּרֵאשִׁית, meaning 'In [the] beginning'.{{sfn|Carr|2000|p=491}}

== Composition ==

Genesis was written anonymously, but both Jewish and Christian religious tradition attributes the entire [[Pentateuch]]—Genesis, [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]]—to [[Moses]]. During the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the philosophers [[~~Benedict~~ Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]] questioned [[Mosaic authorship]]. In the 17th century, [[Richard Simon (priest)|Richard Simon]] proposed that the Pentateuch was written by multiple authors over a long period of time.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=5}} The involvement of multiple authors is suggested by internal contradictions within the text. For example, Genesis includes [[Genesis creation narrative|two creation narratives]].{{Sfn|Longman|2005|pp=47–48}}

Genesis was written anonymously, but both Jewish and Christian religious tradition attributes the entire [[Pentateuch]]—Genesis, [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]]—to [[Moses]]. During the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the philosophers [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]] questioned [[Mosaic authorship]]. In the 17th century, [[Richard Simon (priest)|Richard Simon]] proposed that the Pentateuch was written by multiple authors over a long period of time.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=5}} The involvement of multiple authors is suggested by internal contradictions within the text. For example, Genesis includes [[Genesis creation narrative|two creation narratives]].{{Sfn|Longman|2005|pp=47–48}}

At the end of the 19th century, most scholars adopted the [[documentary hypothesis]].{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=19}} This theory held that the five books of the Pentateuch came from four sources: the [[Yahwist]] (abbreviated as J), the [[Elohist]] (E), the [[Deuteronomist]] (D) and the [[Priestly source]] (P). Each source was held to tell the same basic story, with the sources later combined by various editors.{{sfn|Gooder|2000|pp=12–14}} Scholars were able to distinguish sources based on the designations for God. For example, the Yahwist source uses Yahweh, while the Elohistic and Priestly sources use Elohim.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=9}} Scholars also use repeated and duplicate stories to identify separate sources. In Genesis, these include the two creation stories, three different [[Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis|wife–sister narratives]], and the two versions of [[Abraham]] sending [[Hagar]] and [[Ishmael]] into the desert.{{Sfn|Boadt|Clifford|Harrington|2012}}{{page needed|date=March 2024}}

According to the documentary hypothesis, J was produced during the 9th century BC in the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]] and was believed to be the earliest source. E was written in the [[northern Kingdom of Israel]] during the 8th century BC. D was written in Judah in the 7th century BC and associated with the [[Josiah#Religious reform|religious reforms of King Josiah]] {{circa|625 BC}}. The latest source was P, which was written during the 5th century in [[Babylon]]. Based on these dates, Genesis and the rest of the Pentateuch did not reach its final, present-day form until after the Babylonian Exile. [[Julius Wellhausen]] argued that the Pentateuch was finalized in the time of [[Ezra]]. [[Ezra 7]]:14 records that Ezra ~~traveled~~ from Babylon to Jerusalem in 458 BC with God's law in his hand. Wellhausen argued that this was the newly compiled Pentateuch. [[Nehemiah 8]]–[[Nehemiah 10|10]], according to Wellhausen, describes the publication and public acceptance of this new law code {{circa|444 BC}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=19}}{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=9}} There was now a large gap between the earliest sources of the Pentateuch and the period they claimed to describe, which ended {{circa|1200 BC}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=20}}

According to the [[documentary hypothesis]], J was produced during the 9th century BCE in the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]] and was believed to be the earliest source. E was written in the [[northern Kingdom of Israel]] during the 8th century BCE. D was written in Judah in the 7th century BCE and associated with the [[Josiah#Religious reform|religious reforms of King Josiah]] {{circa|625 BCE}}. The latest source was P, which was written during the 5th century in [[Babylon]]. Based on these dates, Genesis and the rest of the Pentateuch did not reach its final, present-day form until after the Babylonian Exile. [[Julius Wellhausen]] argued that the Pentateuch was finalized in the time of [[Ezra]]. [[Ezra 7]]:14 records that Ezra travelled from Babylon to Jerusalem in 458 BCE with God's law in his hand. Wellhausen argued that this was the newly compiled Pentateuch. [[Nehemiah 8]]–[[Nehemiah 10|10]], according to Wellhausen, describes the publication and public acceptance of this new law code {{circa|444 BCE}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=19}}{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=9}} There was now a large gap between the earliest sources of the Pentateuch and the period they claimed to describe, which ended {{circa|1200 BCE}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=20}}

Most scholars held to the documentary hypothesis until the 1980s. Since then, a number of variations and revisions of the documentary hypothesis have been proposed.{{Sfn|Longman|2005|p=49}} The [[Supplementary hypothesis|new supplementary hypothesis]] posits three main sources for the Pentateuch: J, D, and P.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=14}} The E source is considered no more than a variation of J, and P is considered a body of revisions and expansions to the J (or "non-Priestly") material. The Deuteronomistic source does not appear in Genesis.{{sfn|Van Seters|2004|pp=30–86}} G.I. Davies argued that J dates from either just before or during the Babylonian Exile, and the Priestly final edition was made late in the Exilic period or soon after.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=37}}

In the 21st century, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BC.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} In contrast, Ronald Hendel and Aaron Hornkohl have proposed a date prior to the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian period]] (before 550 BC) based on linguistic grounds.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hendel |first1=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urwdtQEACAAJ |title=How Old Is the Hebrew Bible?: A Linguistic, Textual, and Historical Study |last2=Joosten |first2=Jan |date=2018-11-20 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-23488-6 |pages=81–82 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hornkohl|2024|pages=37, 136, 201–202}} Russell Gmirkin has argued that Genesis was composed in the late 270s BC, drawing on Greek sources like [[Berossus]]' [[Babyloniaca (Berossus)|Babyloniaca]] and reflecting the political context of the [[Seleucid]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] realms.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|pp=240–241}}

In the 21st century, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BCE.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} In contrast, Ronald Hendel and Aaron Hornkohl have proposed a date prior to the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian period]] (before 550 BCE) based on linguistic grounds.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hendel |first1=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urwdtQEACAAJ |title=How Old Is the Hebrew Bible?: A Linguistic, Textual, and Historical Study |last2=Joosten |first2=Jan |date=2018-11-20 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-23488-6 |pages=81–82 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hornkohl|2024|pages=37, 136, 201–202}} Russell Gmirkin has argued that Genesis was composed in the late 270s BCE, drawing on Greek sources like [[Berossus]]' [[Babyloniaca (Berossus)|Babyloniaca]] and reflecting the political context of the [[Seleucid]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] realms.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|pp=240–241}}

As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial, is that of Persian imperial authorisation. This proposes that the Persians of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], after their conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community—the priestly families who controlled the [[Second Temple]] and who [[Myth of origins|traced their origin]] to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders" and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given" them the land—were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins". However, the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=169, 217–218}}

As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial, is that of Persian imperial authorisation. This proposes that the Persians of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], after their conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community—the priestly families who controlled the [[Second Temple]] and who [[Myth of origins|traced their origin]] to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders" and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given" them the land—were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins". However, the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=169, 217–218}}

== Genre ==

Genesis is an example of a work in the "antiquities" genre, as the Romans knew it, a popular genre telling of the appearance of humans and their ancestors and heroes, with elaborate genealogies and chronologies fleshed out with stories and anecdotes.{{sfn|Van Seters|2004|pp=113–114}} Notable examples are found in the ~~work~~ of Greek historians ~~of the~~ 6th century BC: their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between [[myth]], [[legend]], and facts.{{sfn|Whybray|2001|p=39}} Professor Jean-Louis Ska of the [[Pontifical Biblical Institute]] calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the "law of conservation": everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}} This antiquity was needed to prove the worth of Israel's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in the early Persian province of Judea), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}}

Genesis is an example of a work in the "antiquities" genre, as the [[ancient Romans]] knew it, a popular genre telling of the appearance of humans and their ancestors and heroes, with elaborate genealogies and chronologies fleshed out with stories and anecdotes.{{sfn|Van Seters|2004|pp=113–114}} Notable examples are found in the works of [[ancient Greek historians]] (6th century BCE): their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between [[myth]], [[legend]], and facts.{{sfn|Whybray|2001|p=39}} Professor Jean-Louis Ska of the [[Pontifical Biblical Institute]] calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the "law of conservation": everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}} This antiquity was needed to prove the worth of Israel's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in the [[Yehud Medinata|early Persian province of Judea]]), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}}

Describing the work of the biblical authors, [[John Van Seters]] wrote that lacking many historical traditions and none from the distant past, "They had to use myths and legends for earlier periods. In order to make sense out of the variety of different and often conflicting versions of stories, and to relate the stories to each other, they fitted them into a genealogical chronology."{{Sfn|Van Seters|1998|pp=21–22}} [[Tremper Longman]] describes Genesis as theological history: "the fact that these events took place is assumed, and not argued. The concern of the text is not to prove the history but rather to impress the reader with the theological significance of these acts".{{Sfn|Longman|2005|p=62}}

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==Textual variation==

{{See also|Textual variants in the Hebrew Bible#Book of Genesis}}

The original manuscripts are lost, and the text of surviving copies varies. There are four major groupings of surviving manuscripts: the [[Masoretic Text]], the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]] (in [[Samaritan script]]), the [[Septuagint]] (a Greek translation), and fragments of Genesis found in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. The Dead Sea Scrolls are oldest but cover only a small portion of the book.{{Sfn|Hendel|1992|p=933}}

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== Summary ==

===Primeval history (chapters 1–11)===

[[File:Edward Hicks, American - Noah's Ark - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Noah's Ark'' (1846), by American folk painter [[Edward Hicks]]]]

[[~~File~~:~~Edward Hicks~~, ~~American~~ - ~~Noah~~'s ~~Ark~~ - ~~Google Art Project~~.~~jpg~~|~~thumb~~|''~~Noah~~'s ~~Ark~~'' (~~1846~~), by the ~~American folk painter~~ [[~~Edward Hicks~~]].]]

The [[Genesis creation narrative]] comprises two different stories; the first two chapters roughly correspond to these.{{efn|Speaking of the disunity of the Pentateuch, {{harvtxt|Baden|2019|p=14}} writes: "Two creation-stories of Genesis 1 and 2 provide the opening salvo. It is impossible to read them as a single unified narrative, as they disagree on almost every point, from the nature of the pre-creation world to the order of creation to the length of time creation took."}} In the first, [[Elohim]], the generic Hebrew word for 'gods'<ref name=gods>{{cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 430. elohim |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/430.htm |access-date=19 March 2026 |website=Bible Hub |quote=''Lexical Summary: 1. '''gods in the ordinary sense'''''}}</ref>) (rendered as "God" in English translations), creates the heavens and the earth including man, in six stages or phases<ref>{{cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 3117. yom |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/3117.htm |website=Bible Hub |access-date=19 March 2026 |quote=''Lexical Summary: 1. a day (as the warm hours), whether literal (from sunrise to sunset, or from one sunset to the next), '''or figurative (a space of time defined by an associated term)''', (often used adverb) / Strong's Exhaustive Concordance: '''age''', always, continually, daily, birth, each, today,''}}</ref> (translated as "days"{{efn|name=SixDays |A [[day]] is the period of time it takes for the Earth to complete one revolution on its access (approximately 24 hours). However, in the first creation story the Earth is not created until the third stage of the process.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|1:9–1:13|KJV}}</ref> The Earth therefore did not exist for the first two stages, so the concept of a day did not exist for the first two stages.}}), and [[Sabbath#Biblical Sabbath|rests on the seventh]]. In the second, ''[[Yahweh|Yahweh elohim]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Genesis 2 Interlinear Bible |url=https://biblehub.com/interlinear/genesis/2.htm |website=Bible Hub |quote=''’êl·leh ṯō·wl·ḏō·wṯ haš·šā·ma·yim wə·hā·’ā·reṣ bə·hib·bā·rə·’ām; bə·yō·wm, ‘ă·śō·wṯ '''Yah·weh ’ĕ·lō·hîm''' ’e·reṣ wə·šā·mā·yim.''}}</ref> (rendered as "the {{LORD}} God" in English translations), creates two individuals, [[Adam and Eve]], as the first man and woman, and places them in the [[Garden of Eden]].

The ~~[[Genesis creation narrative]] comprises two different stories; the first two chapters roughly correspond to these.~~{{~~efn|Speaking of the disunity of the Pentateuch, {{harvtxt|Baden|2019|p=14~~}} ~~writes:~~ "~~Two creation-stories of Genesis 1 and 2 provide~~ the ~~opening salvo. It~~ is ~~impossible~~ to ~~read them as a single unified narrative~~, ~~as they disagree on almost every point~~, from the ~~nature~~ of the ~~pre-creation world to the order~~ of ~~creation to the length of time creation took~~.~~"}} In the first~~, [[~~Elohim~~]], the ~~generic Hebrew word for~~ God, ~~creates the heavens~~ and ~~the earth including humankind~~, in ~~six days, and~~ [[~~Sabbath#Biblical Sabbath|rests on the seventh~~]]~~. In the second, God, now referred to as~~ "[[~~Yahweh~~]] ~~Elohim" (rendered as "the {{LORD}} God" in English translations), creates~~ two ~~individuals~~, [[~~Adam~~ and ~~Eve~~]], ~~as the first man~~ and ~~woman~~, and ~~places them in the~~ [[~~Garden~~ of ~~Eden~~]].

"The {{LORD}} God" commands the man that he is free to eat from any tree, including the tree of life, except from the [[tree of the knowledge of good and evil]]. A [[Serpent (Bible)|serpent]], portrayed as a deceptive creature or [[trickster]], persuades Eve to eat the fruit. She then persuades Adam to eat it. Both become ashamed of their nudity, and are discovered by God, who exiles them from Eden and punishes them. Adam is forced to gain his sustenance by difficult toil, and Eve to giving birth in pain. This is interpreted by Christians as the "[[fall of man]]" [[original sin|into sin]]. Eve bears two sons, [[Cain and Abel]]. Cain works in the garden, and Abel works with meat; they both offer offerings to God one day, though God does not accept Cain's offering but does accept Abel's. This causes Cain to resent Abel; he takes Abel to a field and murders him. God then [[Curse and mark of Cain|curses Cain]]. Eve bears another son, [[Seth]], to take Abel's place.{{Sfn|Mathews|1996|p=290}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=242}}

~~In the second chapter, God commanded the man that he is free to eat~~ from ~~any tree, including~~ the ~~tree~~ of ~~life~~, ~~except from~~ the [[~~tree of the knowledge of good~~ and ~~evil~~]]. ~~Later~~, ~~in chapter 3, a~~ [[~~Serpent (Bible)~~|~~serpent~~]], ~~portrayed as~~ a ~~deceptive creature or~~ [[~~trickster~~]]~~, convinces Eve~~ to ~~eat~~ the ~~fruit~~. ~~She then convinces Adam to eat it~~, ~~whereupon~~ God ~~throws them out and punishes them—Adam was punished with getting what he needs only by sweat and work, and Eve to giving birth in pain. This is interpreted by Christians as the "~~[[~~fall~~ of ~~man~~]]" [[~~original sin~~|~~into sin~~]]. ~~Eve bears two sons~~, [[~~Cain and Abel~~]]. ~~Cain works in the garden,~~ and ~~Abel works~~ with ~~meat; they both offer offerings to God one day, and God does not accept Cain's offering but does accept Abel's~~. ~~This causes Cain to resent Abel~~, ~~and Cain ends up murdering him. God then~~ [[~~Curse and mark of Cain|curses Cain~~]]~~. Eve bears another son,~~ [[~~Seth~~]]~~, to take Cain's place in accordance to the promises given at 3:15, 20~~.~~{{Sfn|Mathews|1996|p=290}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=242}}~~

After many [[generations of Adam]] have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world has become corrupted by human [[sin]] and [[Nephilim]]. God intends to wipe out humanity for their wickedness. However, [[Noah]] is righteous and blameless. God then instructs Noah to [[Noah's Ark|construct an ark]] and store in it all the animals, seven pairs of every clean animal and one pair of every unclean. Then God sends a [[Genesis flood narrative|great flood]] to destroy all the world. When the waters recede, God establishes [[Seven Laws of Noah|a covenant]] with Noah, promising he will never destroy the world with water again, and making a [[Rainbows in mythology|rainbow as a symbol of his promise]]. God later sees mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the [[Tower of Babel]]. He divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion. Then, a generation line from [[Shem]] to [[Abram]] is described.

After many [[generations of Adam]] have passed from the lines of Abel and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by human [[sin]] and [[Nephilim]], and God wants to wipe out humanity for their wickedness. However, [[Noah]] is righteous and blameless. So first, he instructs Noah to [[Noah's Ark|build an ark]] and put examples of all the animals on it, seven pairs of every clean animal and one pair of every unclean. Then God sends a [[Genesis flood narrative|great flood]] to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises he will never destroy the world with water again, making a [[Rainbows in mythology|rainbow as a symbol of his promise]]. God sees humankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the [[Tower of Babel]], and divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion. Then, a generation line from [[Shem]] to [[Abram]] is described.

===Patriarchal age (chapters 12–50)===

~~===Patriarchal age (chapters 12–50)===~~

~~{{See also|Patriarchal age}}~~

Abram, a man descended from Noah, is instructed by God to travel from his home in [[~~Mesopotamia~~]] to the land of [[Canaan]]. There, God makes a promise to Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land "from the [[river of Egypt]] to the great river, the river [[Euphrates]]". Abram's name is changed to 'Abraham' and that of his wife Sarai to [[Sarah]] (meaning 'princess')~~, and~~ God ~~says~~ that all males should be [[circumcised]] as a sign of his promise to Abraham. Due to her old age, Sarah tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, [[Hagar]], as a second wife ~~(to bear a child)~~. Through Hagar, Abraham fathers [[Ishmael]].

Abram, a man descended from Noah, is instructed by "the {{LORD}} God" to travel from his home in [[Ur of the Chaldees]] to the land of [[Canaan]]. There, God makes a promise to Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land "from the [[river of Egypt]] to the great river, the river [[Euphrates]]". Abram's name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife and half-sibling Sarai to [[Sarah]] (meaning 'princess'). God institutes that all males should be [[Brit milah|circumcised]] as a sign of his promise to Abraham. Due to her old age, Sarah tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, [[Hagar]], as a second wife. Through Hagar, Abraham fathers [[Ishmael]].

God then plans to destroy the cities of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] for the sins of their people. Abraham ~~protests~~, ~~but fails to get God to agree not to destroy the cities (reasoning with Abraham~~ that not ~~even~~ ten righteous ~~persons were~~ found there~~; and among the righteous was~~ Abraham's nephew [[Lot (biblical person)|Lot]]~~). Angels save Abraham's nephew Lot (who was living there at the same time)~~ and his family~~, but~~ [[Lot's wife|his wife]] ~~looks back on the destruction, (even though God commanded not~~ to) and ~~turns~~ into a pillar of salt ~~for going against his word~~. Lot's daughters, concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, ~~get~~ Lot ~~drunk~~ so they can become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the [[Moab]]ites and [[Ammon]]ites.

God then plans to destroy the cities of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] for the sins of their people. Abraham pleads for the city, that it may not be destroyed if ten righteous people are found there. Angels remove Abraham's nephew, [[Lot (biblical person)|Lot]], and his family from Sodom. The cities are destroyed; [[Lot's wife|his wife]] turns to view them and is turned into a pillar of salt. [[Lot's daughters]], concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, inebriate Lot so they can become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the [[Moab]]ites and [[Ammon]]ites.

Abraham and Sarah go to the Philistine town of [[Gerar]], ~~pretending~~ to be brother and sister ~~(they are half-siblings)~~. The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her ~~(as she is really Abraham's wife)~~ and he obeys. God sends Sarah a son and tells her she should name him [[Isaac]]; through him will be the establishment of the covenant ~~(promise)~~. Sarah then drives Ishmael and his mother Hagar out into the wilderness ~~(because Ishmael is not her real son and Hagar is a slave)~~, but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.

Abraham and Sarah go to the Philistine town of [[Gerar]], claiming to be brother and sister. The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her and he obeys. God sends Sarah a son and tells her she should name him [[Isaac]]; through him will be the establishment of the covenant. Sarah then drives Ishmael and his mother Hagar out into the wilderness, but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.

[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac'' ([[Rembrandt]], 1635)]]

~~Then,~~ God tests Abraham by demanding that he [[sacrifice Isaac]]. As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, "the Angel of the ~~Lord~~" restrains him, promising him again innumerable descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases [[Machpelah]] (believed to be modern [[Hebron]]) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; after proving herself worthy, Rebekah becomes Isaac's betrothed. [[Keturah]], Abraham's other wife, births more children, among whose descendants are the [[Midian]]ites. Abraham dies at a prosperous old age and his family lays him to rest in Hebron (Machpelah).

"The {{LORD}} God" tests Abraham by demanding that he [[sacrifice Isaac]]. As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, "the Angel of the {{LORD}}" restrains him, rewarding his obedience by promising him again innumerable descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases [[Machpelah]] (believed to be modern [[Hebron]]) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; after proving herself worthy, [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebekah]] becomes Isaac's betrothed. [[Keturah]], Abraham's other wife, births more children, among whose descendants are the [[Midian]]ites. Abraham dies at a prosperous old age and his family lays him to rest in Hebron (Machpelah).

[[File:Foster Bible Pictures 0047-1 Jacob Flees Laban.jpg|thumb|''Jacob flees Laban'' by Charles Foster~~, 1897.~~]]

[[File:Foster Bible Pictures 0047-1 Jacob Flees Laban.jpg|thumb|''Jacob flees Laban'' (1897) by Charles Foster]]

Isaac's wife [[Rebekah]] gives birth to the twins [[Esau]] ~~(meaning 'velvet')~~, father of the [[Edom]]ites, and [[Jacob]] ~~(meaning 'supplanter' or 'follower')~~. Esau ~~was a couple of seconds older as he had come out of the womb~~ first, ~~and was going to become~~ the ~~heir~~; however, through carelessness, he ~~sold~~ his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of stew. ~~His mother,~~ Rebekah, ensures Jacob rightly gains his father's blessing as the firstborn son and inheritor. At 77 years of age, Jacob ~~leaves his parents and later~~ seeks a wife and meets Rachel at a well. He goes to her father, [[Laban (Bible)|~~his uncle~~]], where he works for ~~a total of 14~~ years to ~~earn his wives,~~ [[~~Rachel~~]] and ~~[[Leah]]~~. Jacob's ~~name is changed to Israel after [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|his wrestle with an angel]], and~~ by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the ~~twelve tribes of the children~~ of Israel, and a daughter, [[Dinah]].

Isaac's wife [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebekah]] gives birth to the twins [[Esau]], father of the [[Edom]]ites, and [[Jacob]]. Esau, being born first, is owed the birthright; however, through carelessness, he sells his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of stew. Rebekah ensures Jacob rightly gains his father's blessing as the firstborn son and inheritor. At 77 years of age, Jacob seeks a wife and meets Rachel at a well. He goes to her father and his uncle, [[Laban (Bible)|Laban]], where he works for fourteen years to acquire [[Leah]], Laban's first-born daughter, and Rachel. Jacob leads his family out of Laban's household; by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]], and a daughter, [[Dinah]]. Jacob's name is changed to Israel after [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with an angel]].

Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, rapes Dinah and asks his father to get Dinah for him as his wife, ~~according to Chapter 34.~~ Jacob agrees to the marriage but requires that all the males of Hamor's tribe be circumcised, including Hamor and Shechem. ~~After this was performed and all the men were still weak,~~ Jacob's sons Simeon and Levi ~~murdered~~ all the males. Jacob ~~complained~~ that their act would mean retribution by others, namely the Canaanites and Perizzites. Jacob and his tribe ~~took~~ all ~~the~~ Hivite ~~women and children as well as livestock and other~~ property ~~for themselves~~.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of Bereishit (Genesis): Chapter 34 |work=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bereishit-genesis-chapter-34 |access-date=December 12, 2023}}</ref>

Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, rapes Dinah and asks his father to get Dinah for him as his wife, Jacob agrees to the marriage but requires that all the males of Hamor's tribe be circumcised, including Hamor and Shechem. Jacob's sons [[Simeon (son of Jacob)|Simeon]] and [[Levi]] murder all the males in Hamor's tribe while they are recuperating from their circumcisions. Jacob warns that their act would mean retribution by others, namely the Canaanites and Perizzites. Jacob and his tribe take all Hivite property.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of Bereishit (Genesis): Chapter 34 |work=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bereishit-genesis-chapter-34 |access-date=December 12, 2023}}</ref>

[[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], Jacob's ~~favourite~~ son of the twelve, makes his brothers jealous ~~(especially because of special gifts Jacob gave him) and because of that jealousy they~~ sell Joseph into slavery in [[Egypt]]. Joseph endures many trials including being innocently sentenced to jail but ~~he stays~~ faithful to God. After several years, he prospers there after the [[pharaoh]] of Egypt asks him to interpret a dream he had about an upcoming famine, which Joseph does through God. He is then made second in command of Egypt by the grateful pharaoh, and later on, he is reunited with his father and brothers, who fail to recognize him and plead for food as the famine ~~had reached~~ Canaan ~~as well~~. After ~~much manipulation to see if they still hate him~~, Joseph reveals himself, forgives them for their actions, and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the [[land of Goshen]]. Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and [[Blessing of Jacob|reveals their future]] before he dies. Joseph lives to old age and tells his brothers before his death that if God leads them out of the country, then they should take his bones with them.

[[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], Jacob's favorite son of the twelve, makes his brothers jealous. They covertly sell Joseph into slavery in [[Egypt]]. Joseph endures many trials including being innocently sentenced to jail but remains faithful to God. After several years, he prospers there after the [[pharaoh]] of Egypt asks him to interpret a dream he had about an upcoming famine, which Joseph does through God. He is then made second in command of Egypt by the grateful pharaoh, and later on, he is reunited with his father and brothers, who fail to recognize him and plead for food as the famine reaches Canaan. After testing their faith, Joseph reveals himself, forgives them for their actions, and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the [[land of Goshen]]. Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and [[Blessing of Jacob|reveals their future]] before he dies. Joseph lives to old age and tells his brothers before his death that if God leads them out of the country, then they should take his bones with them.

== Themes ==

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In 1978, [[David Clines]] published ''The Theme of the Pentateuch''. Considered influential as one of the first authors to take up the question of the overarching theme of the Pentateuch, Clines' conclusion was that the overall theme is "the partial fulfilment—which implies also the partial nonfulfillment—of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs". (By calling the fulfilment "partial", Clines was drawing attention to the fact that at the end of Deuteronomy the people of Israel are still outside Canaan.){{Sfn|Clines|1997|p=30}}

The [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]], or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded).{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}} Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations.{{Sfn|Collins|2007|p=47}} (It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source, the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.) Through the patriarchs, God announces the election of Israel, that is, he chooses Israel to be his special people and commits himself to their future.{{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=61}} God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise. ("Faith" in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew Bible means an agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of a belief.){{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=78}}

The [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]], or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded).{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}} Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations.{{Sfn|Collins|2007|p=47}} (It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source, the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.) Through the patriarchs, "the {{LORD}} God" announces the election of Israel, that is, he chooses Israel to be his special people and commits himself to their future.{{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=61}} God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise. ("Faith" in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew Bible means an agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of a belief.){{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=78}}

The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land.{{Sfn|McKeown|2008|p=4}} The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother—[[Sarah]], [[Rebekah]] and [[Rachel]]—is barren. The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God and God in each case gives a son—in Jacob's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen [[Israelites]]. Each succeeding generation of the three promises attains a more rich fulfilment, until through Joseph "all the world" attains salvation from famine,{{Sfn|Wenham|2003|p=34}} and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}}

The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land.{{Sfn|McKeown|2008|p=4}} The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother—[[Sarah]], [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebekah]] and [[Rachel]]—is barren. The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God, and God in each case gives a son—in Jacob's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen [[Israelites]]. Each succeeding generation of the three promises attains a more rich fulfilment, until through Joseph "all the world" attains salvation from famine,{{Sfn|Wenham|2003|p=34}} and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}}

=== God's chosen people ===

Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the [[Yahwist]] and [[Priestly source]]s.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|pp=38–39}} The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of the divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1–11 (the [[primeval history]]) with their theme of God's forgiveness in the face of man's evil nature.{{Sfn|Hendel|1992|p=935}}{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God's decision not to remain alienated from ~~humankind~~:{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} God creates the world and humans, humans rebel, and God "elects" (chooses) Abraham.{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}

Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the [[Yahwist]] and [[Priestly source]]s.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|pp=38–39}} The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of the divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1–11 (the [[primeval history]]) with their theme of God's forgiveness in the face of man's evil nature.{{Sfn|Hendel|1992|p=935}}{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God's decision not to remain alienated from man:{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} "The {{LORD}} God" creates the world and humans, humans rebel, and God "elects" (chooses) Abraham.{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}

To this basic plot (which comes from the Yahwist), the Priestly source has added a series of [[covenant (biblical)|covenants]] dividing history into stages, each with its own distinctive "sign". The [[Covenant (biblical)#Noahic covenant|first covenant]] is between God and all living creatures, and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is with the descendants of Abraham (Isaac and Ishmael), and its sign is [[Brit milah|circumcision]]; and the last, which does not appear until the Book of Exodus, is with Israel alone, and its sign is [[Biblical Sabbath|Sabbath]]. A great leader mediates each covenant ([[Noah]], Abraham, Moses), and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by his name ([[Elohim]] with Noah, [[El Shaddai]] with Abraham, [[Yahweh]] with Moses).{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}

===Deception===

~~{{Further|Trickster}}~~

Throughout Genesis, various figures engage in deception or trickery to survive or prosper. Biblical scholar [[David M. Carr]] notes that such stories reflect the vulnerability felt by ancient Israelites and that "such stories can be a major way of gaining hope and resisting domination". Examples include:{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=50–51}}

*To avoid being killed, ~~a patriarch~~ (~~Abraham~~ in 12:10–20 and 20:1–18 and ~~Isaac in~~ 26:6–11) ~~tells~~ a king that ~~his~~ [[Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis|~~wife is~~ only ~~his sister and not also his wife~~]]. ~~(Genesis 12:11-13 and Genesis 20:11-12)~~

*To avoid being killed, Abraham (in 12:10–20 and 20:1–18) and later Issac (26:6–11) tell a king that their respective [[Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis|wives are only their sisters]].

*In chapter 25, Jacob tricks Esau into selling his birthright for a pot of lentil stew.

*In chapter 27, ~~Isaac is tricked by~~ Rebekah into giving ~~Jacob the~~ superior blessing ~~instead of Esau~~.

*In chapter 27, Rebekah has Jacob impersonate Esau to trick Issac into giving him a superior blessing.

*In chapter 29, Jacob believes he is marrying Rachel but is tricked into marrying her sister.

== Cultural impact ==

[[File:As8 genesis1a.ogv|thumb|The 1968 [[Apollo 8]] [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|Christmas Eve broadcast]] and reading from the Book of Genesis]]

By totaling the spans of time in the genealogies of Genesis, ~~religious authorities~~ have calculated what they ~~consider to be~~ the age of the world since creation. This ''[[Anno Mundi]]'' system of counting years is the basis of the [[Hebrew calendar]] and [[Byzantine calendar]]. ~~Counts differ somewhat, but they generally place~~ the ~~age of~~ the ~~Earth at about six thousand years~~.

By totaling the spans of time recorded in the genealogies of Genesis, various Jewish and Christian chronologers have calculated what they regard as the age of the world since creation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Genealogies and Biblical Chronology |url=https://www.perspectivedigest.org/archive/26-1/genealogies-and-biblical-chronology |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=www.perspectivedigest.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Ministry |title=How accurate is Biblical chronology? |url=https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/1984/03/how-accurate-is-biblical-chronology |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=www.ministrymagazine.org |language=en}}</ref> This ''[[Anno Mundi]]'' system of counting years is the basis of the [[Hebrew calendar]] and [[Byzantine calendar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the Hebrew Calendar {{!}} Yale University Library |url=https://web.library.yale.edu/cataloging/hebraica/about-hebrew-calendar |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=web.library.yale.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Byzantine Calendar {{!}} Melkite |url=https://melkite.org/faith/the-byzantine-calendar |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=melkite.org}}</ref>

During the [[Protestant Reformation]], rivalry between Catholic and Protestant Christians led to a closer study of the Bible and a competition to take its words more seriously. Thus, scholars in Europe from the 16th to the 19th century treated the book of Genesis as factual. As evidence in the fields of [[paleontology]], [[geology]] and other sciences was uncovered, scholars tried to fit these discoveries into the Genesis creation account.{{Sfn|Gohau|1990|pp=47–51}} For example, [[Johann Jakob Scheuchzer]] in the 18th century believed that [[fossils]] were the remains of creatures killed during the flood. This literal understanding of Genesis fell out of favor with scholars during the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] crisis of faith as evidence mounted that the [[Age of Earth|Earth was far older]] than six thousand years.

The ''Book of Genesis'' has had a significant cultural impact on later ideas about human dignity and moral worth, particularly through its assertion that humanity (''adam'', meaning humankind) is created in the image of "God".<ref name=":0" /> This concept has been widely interpreted as affirming the intrinsic value of every human being, regardless of social rank or political status, and became a foundational theme within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.<ref name=":0" /> Scholars have noted that this biblical anthropology influenced later Western moral and political thought, including Enlightenment-era discussions of natural rights and human equality.<ref name=":0" /> In this context, religion professor [[Elaine Pagels]] cited elements of ''Genesis'' as part of the intellectual background to documents such as the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], which frames rights to life and liberty as universal and grounded in nature and divine authority, even as those ideas were articulated through secular philosophical traditions shaped by early modern Europe.<ref name=":0">Pagels, Elaine. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/11/america-founding-morals-rights-life-liberty/684327/ "The Moral Foundation of America."] ''The Atlantic''. 9 October 2025. 4 January 2026.</ref>

== Judaism's weekly Torah portions ==

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* {{Cite book |last=Bandstra |first=Barry L |title=Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible |publisher=Wadsworth |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA489 |isbn=978-0-495-39105-0}}

* {{Cite book |last=Bandstra |first=Barry L. |title=Reading the Old Testament |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC |isbn=978-0-495-39105-0}}

* {{Cite book |last=Bergant |first=Dianne |title=Genesis: In the Beginning |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRCwAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-8146-8275-3}}

* {{Cite book |last=Bergant |first=Dianne |author-link=Dianne Bergant |title=Genesis: In the Beginning |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRCwAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-8146-8275-3}}

* {{cite book |last1=Boadt |first1=Lawrence |author-link1=Lawrence Boadt |last2=Clifford |first2=Richard J. |last3=Harrington |first3=Daniel J. |author-link3=Daniel J. Harrington |title=Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction |publisher=Paulist Press |series= |volume= |edition=2nd |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSpHAAAAQBAJ |isbn=9781616436704}}

* {{Cite book |last=Brueggemann |first=Walter |title=Reverberations of faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament themes |publisher=Westminster John Knox |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBJQ71RIpdMC |isbn=978-0-664-22231-4}}

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* {{Cite book |last=Sacks |first=Robert D |title=A Commentary on the Book of Genesis |publisher=Edwin Mellen |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/RobertSacksACommentaryOnTheBookOfGenesis}}

* [[Nahum M. Sarna|Sarna, Nahum M.]] ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. {{ISBN|0-8276-0326-6}}.

* {{Cite book|editor-link=Ephraim Avigdor Speiser|editor-last1=Speiser|editor-first1=Ephraim Avigdor |title=Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes|location=New York|publisher=[[Anchor Bible]]|year=1964|ISBN=~~0-385-00854-6~~}}

* {{Cite book |editor-link=Ephraim Avigdor Speiser |editor-last1=Speiser |editor-first1=Ephraim Avigdor |title=Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes |location=New York |publisher=[[Anchor Bible]] |year=2008 |orig-year=1964 |ISBN=9780300140255}}

* {{Cite book |last=Towner |first=Wayne Sibley |title=Genesis |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ONdsoa7MHUC |isbn=978-0-664-25256-4}}

* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Laurence |title=Genesis, Second Edition |publisher=Sheffield Phoenix Press |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SvxTWrBZVtwC |isbn=978-1-906055-65-3}}

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== External links ==

* {{librivox book | dtitle=Bible: Genesis| stitle=01: Genesis}} Various versions

* [https://hebrewbible.app/en/texts/Genesis.1.1 The Book of Genesis] full Hebrew and translated text with Jewish commentaries on hebrewbible.app

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~~{{DEFAULTSORT:Book Of Genesis}}~~

[[Category:Book of Genesis| ]]

[[Category:6th-century BC books|Genesis]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|First book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament}}
+{{Short description|First book of the Bible}}
 {{redirect|The Book of Genesis|the comic|The Book of Genesis (comic){{!}}''The Book of Genesis'' (comic)}}
 {{Tanakh OT |Torah |Pentateuch}}
+[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 001.png|thumb|Illustration of the creation of light, as stated in Genesis 1:3.{{efn|Verse can be found here: https://biblehub.com/genesis/1-3.htm}} By [[Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld]], 1860.]]
-The '''Book of Genesis''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Langx|grc|Γένεσις|Génesis|label=none}}; {{langx|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּרֵאשִׁית}}|Bərēʾšīṯ|In [the] beginning}}; {{langx|la|Liber Genesis}}) is the first book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the Christian [[Old Testament]].{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=1}} Its Hebrew name is the same as its [[incipit|first word]], {{transliteration|hbo|Bereshit}} ([[In the beginning (phrase)|'In the beginning']]). Genesis purports to be an account of the [[Genesis creation narrative|creation of the world]], the early history of humanity, and the [[Jews#Origins|origins of the Jewish people]].{{sfn|Sweeney|2012|p=657}} In [[Judaism]], the theological importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking [[God in Judaism|God]] to his chosen people and the people to the [[Promised Land]].
+The '''Book of Genesis''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Langx|grc|Γένεσις|Génesis|Origin|label=none}}; {{langx|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|בְּרֵאשִׁית}}|Bərēʾšīṯ|In [the] Beginning}}; {{langx|la|Liber Genesis}}) is the first book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the Christian [[Old Testament]].{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=1}} The Hebrew name {{transliteration|hbo|bereshit}} ([[In the beginning (phrase)|'in the beginning']]) is taken directly from the [[incipit|first word]]. The primary narrative of Genesis includes a legendary account of the [[Genesis creation narrative|creation of the world]], the early history of the human race, and the [[Jews#Origins|origins of the Jewish people]].{{sfn|Sweeney|2012|p=657}} In [[Judaism]], the theological importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking [[God in Judaism|God]] to his chosen people and the people to the [[Promised Land]].
-Genesis is part of the [[Torah]] or Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible. Tradition credits [[Moses]] as the Torah's author. However, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed several centuries later, after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BC.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} Based on the scientific interpretation of [[Archaeology|archaeological]], [[Genetics|genetic]], and linguistic evidence, mainstream biblical scholars consider Genesis to be primarily [[Myth|mythological]] rather than [[History|historical]].
+Genesis is part of the [[Torah]], the first five books of the Bible (or ''Pentateuch''). Tradition credits [[Moses]] as the Torah's author. However, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed several centuries later, after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BCE.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} Based on the scientific interpretation of [[Archaeology|archaeological]], [[Genetics|genetic]], and linguistic evidence, mainstream [[biblical scholars]] consider Genesis to be primarily [[Myth|mythological]] rather than [[History|historical]].
-It is divisible into two parts, the [[primeval history]] (chapters 1–11) and the [[Patriarchal age|ancestral history]] (chapters 12–50).{{sfn|Bergant|2013|p=xii}} The primeval history sets out the author's concepts of the nature of the deity and of humankind's relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for humans, but when man corrupts it with sin, God decides to destroy his creation, sparing only the righteous [[Noah]] and his family to re-establish the relationship between man and God.{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=35}}
+It is divisible into two parts: the [[primeval history]] (chapters 1–11) and the [[Patriarchal age|ancestral history]] (chapters 12–50).{{sfn|Bergant|2013|p=xii}} The primeval history sets out the author's concepts of the nature of the deity and of humanity's relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for humans, and God creates a garden for [[Adam and Eve]], but when humanity corrupts the world with sin, he decides to destroy his creation, sparing only the righteous [[Noah]] and his family to re-establish the relationship between man and God.{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=35}}
-The ancestral history (chapters 12–50) tells of the prehistory of [[Israelites|Israel]], God's [[Jews as the chosen people|chosen people]].{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=78}} At God's command, Noah's descendant [[Abraham]] journeys from his birthplace (described as [[Ur of the Chaldeans]] and whose identification with [[Ur|Sumerian Ur]] is [[Ur#Identification with the Biblical Ur|tentative in modern scholarship]]) into the God-given land of [[Canaan]], where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son [[Isaac]] and his grandson [[Jacob]]. Jacob's name is changed to "Israel", and through the agency of his son [[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], the [[children of Israel]] descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] (departure). The narrative is punctuated by a series of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenants]] with God, successively narrowing in scope from all humankind (the [[covenant with Noah]]) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}
+The ancestral history (chapters 12–50) tells of the prehistory of [[Israelites|Israel]], God's [[Jews as the chosen people|chosen people]].{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=78}} At God's command, Noah's descendant [[Abraham]] journeys from his birthplace (described as [[Ur of the Chaldeans]] and whose identification with [[Ur|Sumerian Ur]] is [[Ur#Identification with the Biblical Ur|tentative in modern scholarship]]) into God-given land of [[Canaan]], where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son [[Isaac]] and his grandson [[Jacob]]. Jacob's name is changed to [[Israel (name)|"Israel"]], and through the agency of his son [[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], the children of Israel descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] (departure). The narrative is punctuated by a series of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenants]] with God, successively narrowing in scope from all peoples (the [[covenant with Noah]]) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}
 == Title ==
-[[File:Lieber des Ghetto 18.jpg|thumb|''The Creation of Man'' by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]], 1903.]]
+[[File:Lieber des Ghetto 18.jpg|thumb|''The Creation of Man'' by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]], 1903]]
-The name ''Genesis'' is from the Latin [[Vulgate]], in turn borrowed or transliterated from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Lang|grc|Γένεσις}}, meaning 'origin'; {{langx|hbo|בְּרֵאשִׁית|Bərēʾšīṯ}}, 'In [the] beginning'.{{sfn|Carr|2000|p=491}}
+The name ''Genesis'' is from the Latin [[Vulgate]], in turn borrowed or transliterated from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Lang|grc|Γένεσις}}, meaning 'origin', which is the name of the book in the [[Septuagint]]; in Hebrew, consistent with the naming convention for the [[Torah|Pentateuch]], the book is titled by [[Incipit|its first word]], בְּרֵאשִׁית, meaning 'In [the] beginning'.{{sfn|Carr|2000|p=491}}
 == Composition ==
 {{Main|Composition of the Torah}}
-Genesis was written anonymously, but both Jewish and Christian religious tradition attributes the entire [[Pentateuch]]—Genesis, [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]]—to [[Moses]]. During the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the philosophers [[Benedict Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]] questioned [[Mosaic authorship]]. In the 17th century, [[Richard Simon (priest)|Richard Simon]] proposed that the Pentateuch was written by multiple authors over a long period of time.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=5}} The involvement of multiple authors is suggested by internal contradictions within the text. For example, Genesis includes [[Genesis creation narrative|two creation narratives]].{{Sfn|Longman|2005|pp=47–48}}
+Genesis was written anonymously, but both Jewish and Christian religious tradition attributes the entire [[Pentateuch]]—Genesis, [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]]—to [[Moses]]. During the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the philosophers [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]] questioned [[Mosaic authorship]]. In the 17th century, [[Richard Simon (priest)|Richard Simon]] proposed that the Pentateuch was written by multiple authors over a long period of time.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=5}} The involvement of multiple authors is suggested by internal contradictions within the text. For example, Genesis includes [[Genesis creation narrative|two creation narratives]].{{Sfn|Longman|2005|pp=47–48}}
 At the end of the 19th century, most scholars adopted the [[documentary hypothesis]].{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=19}} This theory held that the five books of the Pentateuch came from four sources: the [[Yahwist]] (abbreviated as J), the [[Elohist]] (E), the [[Deuteronomist]] (D) and the [[Priestly source]] (P). Each source was held to tell the same basic story, with the sources later combined by various editors.{{sfn|Gooder|2000|pp=12–14}} Scholars were able to distinguish sources based on the designations for God. For example, the Yahwist source uses Yahweh, while the Elohistic and Priestly sources use Elohim.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=9}} Scholars also use repeated and duplicate stories to identify separate sources. In Genesis, these include the two creation stories, three different [[Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis|wife–sister narratives]], and the two versions of [[Abraham]] sending [[Hagar]] and [[Ishmael]] into the desert.{{Sfn|Boadt|Clifford|Harrington|2012}}{{page needed|date=March 2024}}
-According to the documentary hypothesis, J was produced during the 9th century BC in the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]] and was believed to be the earliest source. E was written in the [[northern Kingdom of Israel]] during the 8th century BC. D was written in Judah in the 7th century BC and associated with the [[Josiah#Religious reform|religious reforms of King Josiah]] {{circa|625 BC}}. The latest source was P, which was written during the 5th century in [[Babylon]]. Based on these dates, Genesis and the rest of the Pentateuch did not reach its final, present-day form until after the Babylonian Exile. [[Julius Wellhausen]] argued that the Pentateuch was finalized in the time of [[Ezra]]. [[Ezra 7]]:14 records that Ezra traveled from Babylon to Jerusalem in 458 BC with God's law in his hand. Wellhausen argued that this was the newly compiled Pentateuch. [[Nehemiah 8]]–[[Nehemiah 10|10]], according to Wellhausen, describes the publication and public acceptance of this new law code {{circa|444 BC}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=19}}{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=9}} There was now a large gap between the earliest sources of the Pentateuch and the period they claimed to describe, which ended {{circa|1200 BC}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=20}}
+According to the [[documentary hypothesis]], J was produced during the 9th century BCE in the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]] and was believed to be the earliest source. E was written in the [[northern Kingdom of Israel]] during the 8th century BCE. D was written in Judah in the 7th century BCE and associated with the [[Josiah#Religious reform|religious reforms of King Josiah]] {{circa|625 BCE}}. The latest source was P, which was written during the 5th century in [[Babylon]]. Based on these dates, Genesis and the rest of the Pentateuch did not reach its final, present-day form until after the Babylonian Exile. [[Julius Wellhausen]] argued that the Pentateuch was finalized in the time of [[Ezra]]. [[Ezra 7]]:14 records that Ezra travelled from Babylon to Jerusalem in 458 BCE with God's law in his hand. Wellhausen argued that this was the newly compiled Pentateuch. [[Nehemiah 8]]–[[Nehemiah 10|10]], according to Wellhausen, describes the publication and public acceptance of this new law code {{circa|444 BCE}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=19}}{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=9}} There was now a large gap between the earliest sources of the Pentateuch and the period they claimed to describe, which ended {{circa|1200 BCE}}.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=20}}
 Most scholars held to the documentary hypothesis until the 1980s. Since then, a number of variations and revisions of the documentary hypothesis have been proposed.{{Sfn|Longman|2005|p=49}} The [[Supplementary hypothesis|new supplementary hypothesis]] posits three main sources for the Pentateuch: J, D, and P.{{sfn|Van Seters|1998|p=14}} The E source is considered no more than a variation of J, and P is considered a body of revisions and expansions to the J (or "non-Priestly") material. The Deuteronomistic source does not appear in Genesis.{{sfn|Van Seters|2004|pp=30–86}} G.I. Davies argued that J dates from either just before or during the Babylonian Exile, and the Priestly final edition was made late in the Exilic period or soon after.{{Sfn|Davies|1998|p=37}}
-In the 21st century, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BC.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} In contrast, Ronald Hendel and Aaron Hornkohl have proposed a date prior to the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian period]] (before 550 BC) based on linguistic grounds.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hendel |first1=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urwdtQEACAAJ |title=How Old Is the Hebrew Bible?: A Linguistic, Textual, and Historical Study |last2=Joosten |first2=Jan |date=2018-11-20 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-23488-6 |pages=81–82 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hornkohl|2024|pages=37, 136, 201–202}} Russell Gmirkin has argued that Genesis was composed in the late 270s BC, drawing on Greek sources like [[Berossus]]' [[Babyloniaca (Berossus)|Babyloniaca]] and reflecting the political context of the [[Seleucid]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] realms.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|pp=240–241}}
+In the 21st century, there is scholarly consensus that the Book of Genesis was composed after the [[Babylonian captivity]], possibly in the fifth century BCE.{{sfn|Oliver|2017|pages=11-12}} In contrast, Ronald Hendel and Aaron Hornkohl have proposed a date prior to the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian period]] (before 550 BCE) based on linguistic grounds.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hendel |first1=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urwdtQEACAAJ |title=How Old Is the Hebrew Bible?: A Linguistic, Textual, and Historical Study |last2=Joosten |first2=Jan |date=2018-11-20 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-23488-6 |pages=81–82 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hornkohl|2024|pages=37, 136, 201–202}} Russell Gmirkin has argued that Genesis was composed in the late 270s BCE, drawing on Greek sources like [[Berossus]]' [[Babyloniaca (Berossus)|Babyloniaca]] and reflecting the political context of the [[Seleucid]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] realms.{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|pp=240–241}}
-As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial, is that of Persian imperial authorisation. This proposes that the Persians of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], after their conquest of Babylon in 539&nbsp;BC, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community—the priestly families who controlled the [[Second Temple]] and who [[Myth of origins|traced their origin]] to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders" and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given" them the land—were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins". However, the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=169, 217–218}}
+As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial, is that of Persian imperial authorisation. This proposes that the Persians of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], after their conquest of Babylon in 539&nbsp;BCE, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community—the priestly families who controlled the [[Second Temple]] and who [[Myth of origins|traced their origin]] to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders" and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given" them the land—were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins". However, the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=169, 217–218}}
 == Genre ==
-Genesis is an example of a work in the "antiquities" genre, as the Romans knew it, a popular genre telling of the appearance of humans and their ancestors and heroes, with elaborate genealogies and chronologies fleshed out with stories and anecdotes.{{sfn|Van Seters|2004|pp=113–114}} Notable examples are found in the work of Greek historians of the 6th century BC: their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between [[myth]], [[legend]], and facts.{{sfn|Whybray|2001|p=39}} Professor Jean-Louis Ska of the [[Pontifical Biblical Institute]] calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the "law of conservation": everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}} This antiquity was needed to prove the worth of Israel's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in the early Persian province of Judea), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}}
+Genesis is an example of a work in the "antiquities" genre, as the [[ancient Romans]] knew it, a popular genre telling of the appearance of humans and their ancestors and heroes, with elaborate genealogies and chronologies fleshed out with stories and anecdotes.{{sfn|Van Seters|2004|pp=113–114}} Notable examples are found in the works of [[ancient Greek historians]] (6th century BCE): their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between [[myth]], [[legend]], and facts.{{sfn|Whybray|2001|p=39}} Professor Jean-Louis Ska of the [[Pontifical Biblical Institute]] calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the "law of conservation": everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}} This antiquity was needed to prove the worth of Israel's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in the [[Yehud Medinata|early Persian province of Judea]]), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=169}}
 Describing the work of the biblical authors, [[John Van Seters]] wrote that lacking many historical traditions and none from the distant past, "They had to use myths and legends for earlier periods. In order to make sense out of the variety of different and often conflicting versions of stories, and to relate the stories to each other, they fitted them into a genealogical chronology."{{Sfn|Van Seters|1998|pp=21–22}} [[Tremper Longman]] describes Genesis as theological history: "the fact that these events took place is assumed, and not argued. The concern of the text is not to prove the history but rather to impress the reader with the theological significance of these acts".{{Sfn|Longman|2005|p=62}}
@@ Line 37: / Line 38: @@
 ==Textual variation==
 {{See also|Textual variants in the Hebrew Bible#Book of Genesis}}
 The original manuscripts are lost, and the text of surviving copies varies. There are four major groupings of surviving manuscripts: the [[Masoretic Text]], the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]] (in [[Samaritan script]]), the [[Septuagint]] (a Greek translation), and fragments of Genesis found in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. The Dead Sea Scrolls are oldest but cover only a small portion of the book.{{Sfn|Hendel|1992|p=933}}
@@ Line 59: / Line 61: @@
 == Summary ==
 ===Primeval history (chapters 1–11)===
-{{See also|Primeval history}}
+{{Main|Primeval history}}
+[[File:Edward Hicks, American - Noah's Ark - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Noah's Ark'' (1846), by American folk painter [[Edward Hicks]]]]
-[[File:Edward Hicks, American - Noah's Ark - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Noah's Ark'' (1846), by the American folk painter [[Edward Hicks]].]]
+The [[Genesis creation narrative]] comprises two different stories; the first two chapters roughly correspond to these.{{efn|Speaking of the disunity of the Pentateuch, {{harvtxt|Baden|2019|p=14}} writes: "Two creation-stories of Genesis 1 and 2 provide the opening salvo. It is impossible to read them as a single unified narrative, as they disagree on almost every point, from the nature of the pre-creation world to the order of creation to the length of time creation took."}} In the first, [[Elohim]], the generic Hebrew word for 'gods'<ref name=gods>{{cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 430. elohim |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/430.htm |access-date=19 March 2026 |website=Bible Hub |quote=''Lexical Summary: 1. '''gods in the ordinary sense'''''}}</ref>) (rendered as "God" in English translations), creates the heavens and the earth including man, in six stages or phases<ref>{{cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 3117. yom |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/3117.htm |website=Bible Hub |access-date=19 March 2026 |quote=''Lexical Summary: 1. a day (as the warm hours), whether literal (from sunrise to sunset, or from one sunset to the next), '''or figurative (a space of time defined by an associated term)''', (often used adverb) / Strong's Exhaustive Concordance: '''age''', always, continually, daily, birth, each, today,''}}</ref> (translated as "days"{{efn|name=SixDays |A [[day]] is the period of time it takes for the Earth to complete one revolution on its access (approximately 24 hours).  However, in the first creation story the Earth is not created until the third stage of the process.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|1:9–1:13|KJV}}</ref> The Earth therefore did not exist for the first two stages, so the concept of a day did not exist for the first two stages.}}), and [[Sabbath#Biblical Sabbath|rests on the seventh]]. In the second, ''[[Yahweh|Yahweh elohim]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Genesis 2 Interlinear Bible |url=https://biblehub.com/interlinear/genesis/2.htm |website=Bible Hub |quote=''’êl·leh ṯō·wl·ḏō·wṯ haš·šā·ma·yim wə·hā·’ā·reṣ bə·hib·bā·rə·’ām; bə·yō·wm, ‘ă·śō·wṯ '''Yah·weh ’ĕ·lō·hîm''' ’e·reṣ wə·šā·mā·yim.''}}</ref> (rendered as "the {{LORD}} God" in English translations), creates two individuals, [[Adam and Eve]], as the first man and woman, and places them in the [[Garden of Eden]].
-The [[Genesis creation narrative]] comprises two different stories; the first two chapters roughly correspond to these.{{efn|Speaking of the disunity of the Pentateuch, {{harvtxt|Baden|2019|p=14}} writes: "Two creation-stories of Genesis 1 and 2 provide the opening salvo. It is impossible to read them as a single unified narrative, as they disagree on almost every point, from the nature of the pre-creation world to the order of creation to the length of time creation took."}} In the first, [[Elohim]], the generic Hebrew word for God, creates the heavens and the earth including humankind, in six days, and [[Sabbath#Biblical Sabbath|rests on the seventh]]. In the second, God, now referred to as "[[Yahweh]] Elohim" (rendered as "the {{LORD}} God" in English translations), creates two individuals, [[Adam and Eve]], as the first man and woman, and places them in the [[Garden of Eden]].
+"The  {{LORD}} God" commands the man that he is free to eat from any tree, including the tree of life, except from the [[tree of the knowledge of good and evil]]. A [[Serpent (Bible)|serpent]], portrayed as a deceptive creature or [[trickster]], persuades Eve to eat the fruit. She then persuades Adam to eat it. Both become ashamed of their nudity, and are discovered by God, who exiles them from Eden and punishes them. Adam is forced to gain his sustenance by difficult toil, and Eve to giving birth in pain. This is interpreted by Christians as the "[[fall of man]]" [[original sin|into sin]]. Eve bears two sons, [[Cain and Abel]]. Cain works in the garden, and Abel works with meat; they both offer offerings to God one day, though God does not accept Cain's offering but does accept Abel's. This causes Cain to resent Abel; he takes Abel to a field and murders him. God then [[Curse and mark of Cain|curses Cain]]. Eve bears another son, [[Seth]], to take Abel's place.{{Sfn|Mathews|1996|p=290}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=242}}
-In the second chapter, God commanded the man that he is free to eat from any tree, including the tree of life, except from the [[tree of the knowledge of good and evil]]. Later, in chapter 3, a [[Serpent (Bible)|serpent]], portrayed as a deceptive creature or [[trickster]], convinces Eve to eat the fruit. She then convinces Adam to eat it, whereupon God throws them out and punishes them—Adam was punished with getting what he needs only by sweat and work, and Eve to giving birth in pain. This is interpreted by Christians as the "[[fall of man]]" [[original sin|into sin]]. Eve bears two sons, [[Cain and Abel]]. Cain works in the garden, and Abel works with meat; they both offer offerings to God one day, and God does not accept Cain's offering but does accept Abel's. This causes Cain to resent Abel, and Cain ends up murdering him. God then [[Curse and mark of Cain|curses Cain]]. Eve bears another son, [[Seth]], to take Cain's place in accordance to the promises given at 3:15, 20.{{Sfn|Mathews|1996|p=290}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=242}}
+After many [[generations of Adam]] have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world has become corrupted by human [[sin]] and [[Nephilim]]. God intends to wipe out humanity for their wickedness. However, [[Noah]] is righteous and blameless. God then instructs Noah to [[Noah's Ark|construct an ark]] and store in it all the animals, seven pairs of every clean animal and one pair of every unclean. Then God sends a [[Genesis flood narrative|great flood]] to destroy all the world. When the waters recede, God establishes [[Seven Laws of Noah|a covenant]] with Noah, promising he will never destroy the world with water again, and making a [[Rainbows in mythology|rainbow as a symbol of his promise]]. God later sees mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the [[Tower of Babel]]. He divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion. Then, a generation line from [[Shem]] to [[Abram]] is described.
-After many [[generations of Adam]] have passed from the lines of Abel and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by human [[sin]] and [[Nephilim]], and God wants to wipe out humanity for their wickedness. However, [[Noah]] is righteous and blameless. So first, he instructs Noah to [[Noah's Ark|build an ark]] and put examples of all the animals on it, seven pairs of every clean animal and one pair of every unclean. Then God sends a [[Genesis flood narrative|great flood]] to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises he will never destroy the world with water again, making a [[Rainbows in mythology|rainbow as a symbol of his promise]]. God sees humankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the [[Tower of Babel]], and divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion. Then, a generation line from [[Shem]] to [[Abram]] is described.
+===Patriarchal age (chapters 12–50)===
+{{Main|Patriarchal age}}
-===Patriarchal age (chapters 12–50)===
-{{See also|Patriarchal age}}
 [[File:Molnár Ábrahám kiköltözése 1850.jpg|thumb|right|''Abram's Journey from [[Ur Kaśdim|Ur]] to [[Canaan]]'' ([[József Molnár (painter)|József Molnár]], 1850)]]
-Abram, a man descended from Noah, is instructed by God to travel from his home in [[Mesopotamia]] to the land of [[Canaan]]. There, God makes a promise to Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land "from the [[river of Egypt]] to the great river, the river [[Euphrates]]". Abram's name is changed to 'Abraham' and that of his wife Sarai to [[Sarah]] (meaning 'princess'), and God says that all males should be [[circumcised]] as a sign of his promise to Abraham. Due to her old age, Sarah tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, [[Hagar]], as a second wife (to bear a child). Through Hagar, Abraham fathers [[Ishmael]].
+Abram, a man descended from Noah, is instructed by "the  {{LORD}} God" to travel from his home in [[Ur of the Chaldees]] to the land of [[Canaan]]. There, God makes a promise to Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land "from the [[river of Egypt]] to the great river, the river [[Euphrates]]". Abram's name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife and half-sibling Sarai to [[Sarah]] (meaning 'princess'). God institutes that all males should be [[Brit milah|circumcised]] as a sign of his promise to Abraham. Due to her old age, Sarah tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, [[Hagar]], as a second wife. Through Hagar, Abraham fathers [[Ishmael]].
-God then plans to destroy the cities of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] for the sins of their people. Abraham protests, but fails to get God to agree not to destroy the cities (reasoning with Abraham that not even ten righteous persons were found there; and among the righteous was Abraham's nephew [[Lot (biblical person)|Lot]]). Angels save Abraham's nephew Lot (who was living there at the same time) and his family, but [[Lot's wife|his wife]] looks back on the destruction, (even though God commanded not to) and turns into a pillar of salt for going against his word. Lot's daughters, concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, get Lot drunk so they can become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the [[Moab]]ites and [[Ammon]]ites.
+God then plans to destroy the cities of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] for the sins of their people. Abraham pleads for the city, that it may not be destroyed if ten righteous people are found there. Angels remove Abraham's nephew, [[Lot (biblical person)|Lot]], and his family from Sodom. The cities are destroyed; [[Lot's wife|his wife]] turns to view them and is turned into a pillar of salt. [[Lot's daughters]], concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, inebriate Lot so they can become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the [[Moab]]ites and [[Ammon]]ites.
-Abraham and Sarah go to the Philistine town of [[Gerar]], pretending to be brother and sister (they are half-siblings). The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her (as she is really Abraham's wife) and he obeys. God sends Sarah a son and tells her she should name him [[Isaac]]; through him will be the establishment of the covenant (promise). Sarah then drives Ishmael and his mother Hagar out into the wilderness (because Ishmael is not her real son and Hagar is a slave), but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.
+Abraham and Sarah go to the Philistine town of [[Gerar]], claiming to be brother and sister. The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her and he obeys. God sends Sarah a son and tells her she should name him [[Isaac]]; through him will be the establishment of the covenant. Sarah then drives Ishmael and his mother Hagar out into the wilderness, but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.
 [[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac'' ([[Rembrandt]], 1635)]]
-Then, God tests Abraham by demanding that he [[sacrifice Isaac]]. As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, "the Angel of the Lord" restrains him, promising him again innumerable descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases [[Machpelah]] (believed to be modern [[Hebron]]) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; after proving herself worthy, Rebekah becomes Isaac's betrothed. [[Keturah]], Abraham's other wife, births more children, among whose descendants are the [[Midian]]ites. Abraham dies at a prosperous old age and his family lays him to rest in Hebron (Machpelah).
+"The {{LORD}} God" tests Abraham by demanding that he [[sacrifice Isaac]]. As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, "the Angel of the {{LORD}}" restrains him, rewarding his obedience by promising him again innumerable descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases [[Machpelah]] (believed to be modern [[Hebron]]) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; after proving herself worthy, [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebekah]] becomes Isaac's betrothed. [[Keturah]], Abraham's other wife, births more children, among whose descendants are the [[Midian]]ites. Abraham dies at a prosperous old age and his family lays him to rest in Hebron (Machpelah).
-[[File:Foster Bible Pictures 0047-1 Jacob Flees Laban.jpg|thumb|''Jacob flees Laban'' by Charles Foster, 1897.]]
+[[File:Foster Bible Pictures 0047-1 Jacob Flees Laban.jpg|thumb|''Jacob flees Laban'' (1897) by Charles Foster]]
-Isaac's wife [[Rebekah]] gives birth to the twins [[Esau]] (meaning 'velvet'), father of the [[Edom]]ites, and [[Jacob]] (meaning 'supplanter' or 'follower'). Esau was a couple of seconds older as he had come out of the womb first, and was going to become the heir; however, through carelessness, he sold his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of stew. His mother, Rebekah, ensures Jacob rightly gains his father's blessing as the firstborn son and inheritor. At 77 years of age, Jacob leaves his parents and later seeks a wife and meets Rachel at a well. He goes to her father, [[Laban (Bible)|his uncle]], where he works for a total of 14 years to earn his wives, [[Rachel]] and [[Leah]]. Jacob's name is changed to Israel after [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|his wrestle with an angel]], and by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel, and a daughter, [[Dinah]].
+Isaac's wife [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebekah]] gives birth to the twins [[Esau]], father of the [[Edom]]ites, and [[Jacob]]. Esau, being born first, is owed the birthright; however, through carelessness, he sells his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of stew. Rebekah ensures Jacob rightly gains his father's blessing as the firstborn son and inheritor. At 77 years of age, Jacob seeks a wife and meets Rachel at a well. He goes to her father and his uncle, [[Laban (Bible)|Laban]], where he works for fourteen years to acquire [[Leah]], Laban's first-born daughter, and Rachel. Jacob leads his family out of Laban's household; by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]], and a daughter, [[Dinah]]. Jacob's name is changed to Israel after [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with an angel]].
-Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, rapes Dinah and asks his father to get Dinah for him as his wife, according to Chapter 34. Jacob agrees to the marriage but requires that all the males of Hamor's tribe be circumcised, including Hamor and Shechem. After this was performed and all the men were still weak, Jacob's sons Simeon and Levi murdered all the males. Jacob complained that their act would mean retribution by others, namely the Canaanites and Perizzites. Jacob and his tribe took all the Hivite women and children as well as livestock and other property for themselves.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of Bereishit (Genesis): Chapter 34 |work=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bereishit-genesis-chapter-34 |access-date=December 12, 2023}}</ref>
+Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, rapes Dinah and asks his father to get Dinah for him as his wife, Jacob agrees to the marriage but requires that all the males of Hamor's tribe be circumcised, including Hamor and Shechem. Jacob's sons [[Simeon (son of Jacob)|Simeon]] and [[Levi]] murder all the males in Hamor's tribe while they are recuperating from their circumcisions. Jacob warns that their act would mean retribution by others, namely the Canaanites and Perizzites. Jacob and his tribe take all Hivite property.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of Bereishit (Genesis): Chapter 34 |work=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bereishit-genesis-chapter-34 |access-date=December 12, 2023}}</ref>
-[[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], Jacob's favourite son of the twelve, makes his brothers jealous (especially because of special gifts Jacob gave him) and because of that jealousy they sell Joseph into slavery in [[Egypt]]. Joseph endures many trials including being innocently sentenced to jail but he stays faithful to God. After several years, he prospers there after the [[pharaoh]] of Egypt asks him to interpret a dream he had about an upcoming famine, which Joseph does through God. He is then made second in command of Egypt by the grateful pharaoh, and later on, he is reunited with his father and brothers, who fail to recognize him and plead for food as the famine had reached Canaan as well. After much manipulation to see if they still hate him, Joseph reveals himself, forgives them for their actions, and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the [[land of Goshen]]. Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and [[Blessing of Jacob|reveals their future]] before he dies. Joseph lives to old age and tells his brothers before his death that if God leads them out of the country, then they should take his bones with them.
+[[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]], Jacob's favorite son of the twelve, makes his brothers jealous. They covertly sell Joseph into slavery in [[Egypt]]. Joseph endures many trials including being innocently sentenced to jail but remains faithful to God. After several years, he prospers there after the [[pharaoh]] of Egypt asks him to interpret a dream he had about an upcoming famine, which Joseph does through God. He is then made second in command of Egypt by the grateful pharaoh, and later on, he is reunited with his father and brothers, who fail to recognize him and plead for food as the famine reaches Canaan. After testing their faith, Joseph reveals himself, forgives them for their actions, and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the [[land of Goshen]]. Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and [[Blessing of Jacob|reveals their future]] before he dies. Joseph lives to old age and tells his brothers before his death that if God leads them out of the country, then they should take his bones with them.
 == Themes ==
@@ Line 97: / Line 99: @@
 In 1978, [[David Clines]] published ''The Theme of the Pentateuch''. Considered influential as one of the first authors to take up the question of the overarching theme of the Pentateuch, Clines' conclusion was that the overall theme is "the partial fulfilment—which implies also the partial nonfulfillment—of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs". (By calling the fulfilment "partial", Clines was drawing attention to the fact that at the end of Deuteronomy the people of Israel are still outside Canaan.){{Sfn|Clines|1997|p=30}}
-The [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]], or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded).{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}} Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations.{{Sfn|Collins|2007|p=47}} (It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source, the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.) Through the patriarchs, God announces the election of Israel, that is, he chooses Israel to be his special people and commits himself to their future.{{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=61}} God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise. ("Faith" in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew Bible means an agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of a belief.){{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=78}}
+The [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]], or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded).{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}} Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations.{{Sfn|Collins|2007|p=47}} (It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source, the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.) Through the patriarchs, "the  {{LORD}} God" announces the election of Israel, that is, he chooses Israel to be his special people and commits himself to their future.{{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=61}} God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise. ("Faith" in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew Bible means an agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of a belief.){{Sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=78}}
-The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land.{{Sfn|McKeown|2008|p=4}} The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother—[[Sarah]], [[Rebekah]] and [[Rachel]]—is barren. The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God and God in each case gives a son—in Jacob's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen [[Israelites]]. Each succeeding generation of the three promises attains a more rich fulfilment, until through Joseph "all the world" attains salvation from famine,{{Sfn|Wenham|2003|p=34}} and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}}
+The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land.{{Sfn|McKeown|2008|p=4}} The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother—[[Sarah]], [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebekah]] and [[Rachel]]—is barren. The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God, and God in each case gives a son—in Jacob's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen [[Israelites]]. Each succeeding generation of the three promises attains a more rich fulfilment, until through Joseph "all the world" attains salvation from famine,{{Sfn|Wenham|2003|p=34}} and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|p=50}}
 === God's chosen people ===
+{{Main|Israelites}}
 {{Further|Jews as the chosen people}}
-Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the [[Yahwist]] and [[Priestly source]]s.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|pp=38–39}} The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of the divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1–11 (the [[primeval history]]) with their theme of God's forgiveness in the face of man's evil nature.{{Sfn|Hendel|1992|p=935}}{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God's decision not to remain alienated from humankind:{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} God creates the world and humans, humans rebel, and God "elects" (chooses) Abraham.{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}
+Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the [[Yahwist]] and [[Priestly source]]s.{{Sfn|Hamilton|1990|pp=38–39}} The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of the divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1–11 (the [[primeval history]]) with their theme of God's forgiveness in the face of man's evil nature.{{Sfn|Hendel|1992|p=935}}{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God's decision not to remain alienated from man:{{Sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=9}} "The  {{LORD}} God" creates the world and humans, humans rebel, and God "elects" (chooses) Abraham.{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}
 To this basic plot (which comes from the Yahwist), the Priestly source has added a series of [[covenant (biblical)|covenants]] dividing history into stages, each with its own distinctive "sign". The [[Covenant (biblical)#Noahic covenant|first covenant]] is between God and all living creatures, and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is with the descendants of Abraham (Isaac and Ishmael), and its sign is [[Brit milah|circumcision]]; and the last, which does not appear until the Book of Exodus, is with Israel alone, and its sign is [[Biblical Sabbath|Sabbath]]. A great leader mediates each covenant ([[Noah]], Abraham, Moses), and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by his name ([[Elohim]] with Noah, [[El Shaddai]] with Abraham, [[Yahweh]] with Moses).{{Sfn|Bandstra|2004|pp=28–29}}
 ===Deception===
-{{Further|Trickster}}
 Throughout Genesis, various figures engage in deception or trickery to survive or prosper. Biblical scholar [[David M. Carr]] notes that such stories reflect the vulnerability felt by ancient Israelites and that "such stories can be a major way of gaining hope and resisting domination". Examples include:{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=50–51}}
-*To avoid being killed, a patriarch (Abraham in 12:10–20 and 20:1–18 and Isaac in 26:6–11) tells a king that his [[Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis|wife is only his sister and not also his wife]]. (Genesis 12:11-13 and Genesis 20:11-12)
+*To avoid being killed, Abraham (in 12:10–20 and 20:1–18) and later Issac (26:6–11) tell a king that their respective [[Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis|wives are only their sisters]].
 *In chapter 25, Jacob tricks Esau into selling his birthright for a pot of lentil stew.
-*In chapter 27, Isaac is tricked by Rebekah into giving Jacob the superior blessing instead of Esau.
+*In chapter 27, Rebekah has Jacob impersonate Esau to trick Issac into giving him a superior blessing.
 *In chapter 29, Jacob believes he is marrying Rachel but is tricked into marrying her sister.
 == Cultural impact ==
 {{More footnotes needed|section|date=May 2024}}
+[[File:As8 genesis1a.ogv|thumb|The 1968 [[Apollo 8]] [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|Christmas Eve broadcast]] and reading from the Book of Genesis]]
-By totaling the spans of time in the genealogies of Genesis, religious authorities have calculated what they consider to be the age of the world since creation. This ''[[Anno Mundi]]'' system of counting years is the basis of the [[Hebrew calendar]] and [[Byzantine calendar]]. Counts differ somewhat, but they generally place the age of the Earth at about six thousand years.
+By totaling the spans of time recorded in the genealogies of Genesis, various Jewish and Christian chronologers have calculated what they regard as the age of the world since creation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Genealogies and Biblical Chronology |url=https://www.perspectivedigest.org/archive/26-1/genealogies-and-biblical-chronology |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=www.perspectivedigest.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Ministry |title=How accurate is Biblical chronology? |url=https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/1984/03/how-accurate-is-biblical-chronology |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=www.ministrymagazine.org |language=en}}</ref> This ''[[Anno Mundi]]'' system of counting years is the basis of the [[Hebrew calendar]] and [[Byzantine calendar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the Hebrew Calendar {{!}} Yale University Library |url=https://web.library.yale.edu/cataloging/hebraica/about-hebrew-calendar |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=web.library.yale.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Byzantine Calendar {{!}} Melkite |url=https://melkite.org/faith/the-byzantine-calendar |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=melkite.org}}</ref>
 During the [[Protestant Reformation]], rivalry between Catholic and Protestant Christians led to a closer study of the Bible and a competition to take its words more seriously. Thus, scholars in Europe from the 16th to the 19th century treated the book of Genesis as factual. As evidence in the fields of [[paleontology]], [[geology]] and other sciences was uncovered, scholars tried to fit these discoveries into the Genesis creation account.{{Sfn|Gohau|1990|pp=47–51}} For example, [[Johann Jakob Scheuchzer]] in the 18th century believed that [[fossils]] were the remains of creatures killed during the flood. This literal understanding of Genesis fell out of favor with scholars during the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] crisis of faith as evidence mounted that the [[Age of Earth|Earth was far older]] than six thousand years.
+The ''Book of Genesis'' has had a significant cultural impact on later ideas about human dignity and moral worth, particularly through its assertion that humanity (''adam'', meaning humankind) is created in the image of "God".<ref name=":0" /> This concept has been widely interpreted as affirming the intrinsic value of every human being, regardless of social rank or political status, and became a foundational theme within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.<ref name=":0" />  Scholars have noted that this biblical anthropology influenced later Western moral and political thought, including Enlightenment-era discussions of natural rights and human equality.<ref name=":0" />  In this context, religion professor [[Elaine Pagels]] cited elements of ''Genesis'' as part of the intellectual background to documents such as the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], which frames rights to life and liberty as universal and grounded in nature and divine authority, even as those ideas were articulated through secular philosophical traditions shaped by early modern Europe.<ref name=":0">Pagels, Elaine.  [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/11/america-founding-morals-rights-life-liberty/684327/ "The Moral Foundation of America."] ''The Atlantic''.  9 October 2025.  4 January 2026.</ref>
 == Judaism's weekly Torah portions ==
@@ Line 166: / Line 172: @@
 * {{Cite book |last=Bandstra |first=Barry L |title=Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible |publisher=Wadsworth |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA489 |isbn=978-0-495-39105-0}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Bandstra |first=Barry L. |title=Reading the Old Testament |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC |isbn=978-0-495-39105-0}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Bergant |first=Dianne |title=Genesis: In the Beginning |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRCwAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-8146-8275-3}}
+* {{Cite book |last=Bergant |first=Dianne |author-link=Dianne Bergant |title=Genesis: In the Beginning |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRCwAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-8146-8275-3}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Boadt |first1=Lawrence |author-link1=Lawrence Boadt |last2=Clifford |first2=Richard J. |last3=Harrington |first3=Daniel J. |author-link3=Daniel J. Harrington |title=Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction |publisher=Paulist Press |series= |volume= |edition=2nd |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSpHAAAAQBAJ |isbn=9781616436704}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Brueggemann |first=Walter |title=Reverberations of faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament themes |publisher=Westminster John Knox |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBJQ71RIpdMC |isbn=978-0-664-22231-4}}
@@ Line 211: / Line 217: @@
 * {{Cite book |last=Sacks |first=Robert D |title=A Commentary on the Book of Genesis |publisher=Edwin Mellen |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/RobertSacksACommentaryOnTheBookOfGenesis}}
 * [[Nahum M. Sarna|Sarna, Nahum M.]] ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. {{ISBN|0-8276-0326-6}}.
-* {{Cite book|editor-link=Ephraim Avigdor Speiser|editor-last1=Speiser|editor-first1=Ephraim Avigdor |title=Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes|location=New York|publisher=[[Anchor Bible]]|year=1964|ISBN=0-385-00854-6}}
+* {{Cite book |editor-link=Ephraim Avigdor Speiser |editor-last1=Speiser |editor-first1=Ephraim Avigdor |title=Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes |location=New York |publisher=[[Anchor Bible]] |year=2008 |orig-year=1964 |ISBN=9780300140255}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Towner |first=Wayne Sibley |title=Genesis |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ONdsoa7MHUC |isbn=978-0-664-25256-4}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Laurence |title=Genesis, Second Edition |publisher=Sheffield Phoenix Press |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SvxTWrBZVtwC |isbn=978-1-906055-65-3}}
@@ Line 231: / Line 237: @@
 == External links ==
-* {{librivox book | dtitle=Bible: Genesis| stitle=01: Genesis}} Various versions
 {{Commons category|Book of Genesis}}
 {{Wikiquote|Genesis}}
 {{Wikisource|Genesis (Bible)|Genesis}}
 {{Wikiversity|Study of Genesis}}
+* {{librivox book | dtitle=Bible: Genesis| stitle=01: Genesis}} Various versions
+* [https://hebrewbible.app/en/texts/Genesis.1.1 The Book of Genesis] full Hebrew and translated text with Jewish commentaries on hebrewbible.app
 {{S-start}}
@@ Line 253: / Line 260: @@
 {{Authority control}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:Book Of Genesis}}
 [[Category:Book of Genesis| ]]
 [[Category:6th-century BC books|Genesis]]

Book of Genesis: Difference between revisions

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