Hypertext: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
imported>Dritto1010 Added article Anchor text to section: see also |
imported>Meters m Reverted edit by ~2026-31574-81 (talk) to last version by Tessaract2 |
||
| Line 6: | Line 6: | ||
{{InfoMaps}} | {{InfoMaps}} | ||
[[File:Vannevar Bush portrait.jpg|thumb|Engineer [[Vannevar Bush]] wrote "[[As We May Think]]" in July | [[File:Vannevar Bush portrait.jpg|thumb|alt=Vannevar Bush.|Engineer [[Vannevar Bush]] wrote "[[As We May Think]]" in July 1945 in which he described the [[Memex]], a theoretical proto-hypertext device which in turn helped inspire the subsequent invention of hypertext.]] | ||
[[File:Douglas Engelbart in 2008.jpg|thumb|[[Douglas Engelbart]] in 2009, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of "[[The Mother of All Demos]]" in San Francisco, a 90-minute 1968 presentation of the [[NLS (computer system)|NLS computer system]] which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated many hypertext ideas]] | [[File:Douglas Engelbart in 2008.jpg|thumb|[[Douglas Engelbart]] in 2009, at the 40th anniversary celebrations of "[[The Mother of All Demos]]" in San Francisco, a 90-minute 1968 presentation of the [[NLS (computer system)|NLS computer system]] which was a combination of hardware and software that demonstrated many hypertext ideas]] | ||
'''Hypertext''' is [[E-text|text]] displayed on a [[computer display]] or other [[electronic devices]] with references ([[hyperlinks]]) to other text that the reader can immediately access.<ref>{{cite web| url= | '''Hypertext''' is [[E-text|text]] displayed on a [[computer display]] or other [[electronic devices]] with references ([[hyperlinks]]) to other text that the reader can immediately access.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypertext | title=Hypertext | type=definition |publisher=Merriam-webster Free Online Dictionary | access-date= February 26, 2015}}</ref> Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a [[mouse (computing)|mouse]] click, keypress set, or screen touch. Apart from text, the term "hypertext" is also used to describe tables, images, and other presentational materials with integrated hyperlinks. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the [[World Wide Web]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehman |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Phelps |first2=Shirelle |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 9 | edition=2 |date=2005 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |location=Detroit |isbn=9780787663742 |page=451}}</ref> where [[Web page]]s are often written in the [[Hypertext Markup Language]] (HTML). As implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the [[Internet]]. | ||
==Etymology== | ==Etymology== | ||
| Line 20: | Line 20: | ||
The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "[[hypermedia]]" might seem appropriate. | The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "[[hypermedia]]" might seem appropriate. | ||
In 1992, author [[Ted Nelson]] – who coined both terms in | In 1992, author [[Ted Nelson]] – who coined both terms in 1965<ref>http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036 Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate</ref><ref name="Rettberg">{{cite web|url=https://elmcip.net/node/7367|title=Complex Information Processing: A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate|publisher=Electronic Literature as a Model of Creativity and Innovation in Practice|first=Jill Walker|last=Rettberg}}</ref> – wrote: | ||
{{Blockquote | By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. | [[Ted Nelson|Nelson]], ''[[Literary Machines]]'', 1992}} | {{Blockquote | By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. | [[Ted Nelson|Nelson]], ''[[Literary Machines]]'', 1992}} | ||
| Line 31: | Line 31: | ||
{{Main|History of hypertext|Timeline of hypertext technology}}{{See also|National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)#Scrapbook}} | {{Main|History of hypertext|Timeline of hypertext technology}}{{See also|National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)#Scrapbook}} | ||
{{Cyber anthropology|related}} | {{Cyber anthropology|related}} | ||
In 1941, [[Jorge Luis Borges]] published "[[The Garden of Forking Paths]]", a [[short story]] that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext.<ref name="inspiration">{{Citation | chapter-url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=317431 | publisher = The Association for Computing Machinery | chapter = Hypertext and creative writing| doi = 10.1145/317426.317431 | title = Proceeding of the ACM conference on Hypertext - HYPERTEXT '87 | year = 1987 | last1 = Bolter | first1 = Jay David | last2 = Joyce | first2 = Michael | pages = 41–50 | isbn = 089791340X | s2cid = 207627394 }}.</ref> | In 1941, [[Jorge Luis Borges]] published "[[The Garden of Forking Paths]]", a [[short story]] that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext.<ref name="inspiration">{{Citation | chapter-url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=317431 | publisher = The Association for Computing Machinery | chapter = Hypertext and creative writing| doi = 10.1145/317426.317431 | title = Proceeding of the ACM conference on Hypertext - HYPERTEXT '87 | year = 1987 | last1 = Bolter | first1 = Jay David | last2 = Joyce | first2 = Michael | pages = 41–50 | isbn = 089791340X | s2cid = 207627394 | doi-access = free }}.</ref> | ||
In 1945, [[Vannevar Bush]] wrote an article in ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' called "[[As We May Think]]", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a [[Memex]]. A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in a relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. | In 1945, [[Vannevar Bush]] wrote an article in ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' called "[[As We May Think]]", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a [[Memex]]. A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in a relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. | ||
| Line 37: | Line 37: | ||
[[File:Ted Nelson cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Ted Nelson]] gives a presentation on [[Project Xanadu]], a theoretical hypertext model conceived in the 1960s whose first and incomplete implementation was first published in 1998.<ref name="wiredwired"/>]] | [[File:Ted Nelson cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Ted Nelson]] gives a presentation on [[Project Xanadu]], a theoretical hypertext model conceived in the 1960s whose first and incomplete implementation was first published in 1998.<ref name="wiredwired"/>]] | ||
In 1965, [[Ted Nelson]] coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965).<ref>{{Citation | publisher = Vassar | url = http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html | last = Joyce | first = MI | title = Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" {{sic|nolink=y}}, meaning fast editing" at Vassar College? | access-date = 2011-01-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130324010943/http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html | archive-date = 2013-03-24 | url-status = dead }}</ref> He later worked with [[Andries van Dam]] to develop the [[Hypertext Editing System]] (text editing) in 1967 at [[Brown University]]. It was implemented using the terminal [[IBM 2250]] with a [[light pen]] which was provided as a [[pointing device]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4PM1DgAAQBAJ Belinda Barnet. Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext], 2013, pp.103-106.</ref> By 1976, its successor [[FRESS]] was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community<ref name=barnet>{{Cite journal|last=Barnet|first=Belinda|date=2010-01-01|title=Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS) |journal=Digital Humanities Quarterly|url= | In 1965, [[Ted Nelson]] coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965).<ref>{{Citation | publisher = Vassar | url = http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html | last = Joyce | first = MI | title = Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" {{sic|nolink=y}}, meaning fast editing" at Vassar College? | access-date = 2011-01-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130324010943/http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html | archive-date = 2013-03-24 | url-status = dead }}</ref> He later worked with [[Andries van Dam]] to develop the [[Hypertext Editing System]] (text editing) in 1967 at [[Brown University]]. It was implemented using the terminal [[IBM 2250]] with a [[light pen]] which was provided as a [[pointing device]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4PM1DgAAQBAJ Belinda Barnet. Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext], 2013, pp.103-106.</ref> By 1976, its successor [[FRESS]] was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community<ref name=barnet>{{Cite journal|last=Barnet|first=Belinda|date=2010-01-01|title=Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS) |journal=Digital Humanities Quarterly|url=https://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000081/000081.html|volume=4|issue=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026044125/https://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000081/000081.html |archive-date= Oct 26, 2023 }}</ref> which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.brown.edu/articles/2016/05/hypertext |date= May 23, 2016 |title=Where meter meets mainframe: An early experiment teaching poetry with computers |website=News from Brown |access-date=2016-05-24}}</ref> Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named [[Project Xanadu]], but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998.<ref name="wiredwired">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.06/xanadu.html |title=The Curse of Xanadu |author=Gary Wolf |magazine=[[WIRED]] |volume=3 |issue=6 |date=June 1995}}</ref> During this period, Nelson also proposed using Vladimir Nabokov's 1962 novel ''Pale Fire'' as part of a demonstration to IBM, intending to show how hypertext could support complex, non-linear forms of literary analysis. The novel, structured as a long poem with an extensive, self-referential commentary and index, embodied the principles of associative linking and user-directed navigation that Nelson believed defined hypertext.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nelson |first=Theodore |date=1987 |title=Literary Machines |url=https://monoskop.org/images/b/be/Nelson_Ted_Literary_Machines_c1987_chs_0-1.pdf}}</ref> Its layered design enabled readers to follow multiple interpretive paths through the text, resembling the branching structures later implemented in digital hypertext systems. However, IBM chose a more technically conventional presentation, and the literary demonstration was never realized.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rowberry |first=Simon |chapter=Vladimir Nabokov's pale fire: The lost 'father of all hypertext demos'? |date=2011-06-06 |title=Proceedings of the 22nd ACM conference on Hypertext and hypermedia |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1995966.1996008 |language=en |publisher=ACM |pages=319–324 |doi=10.1145/1995966.1996008 |isbn=978-1-4503-0256-2|url=http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/21810/1/Rowberry%20Pale%20Fire%20Hypertext.pdf }}</ref> | ||
[[Douglas Engelbart]] independently began working on his [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "[[The Mother of All Demos]]". | [[Douglas Engelbart]] independently began working on his [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "[[The Mother of All Demos]]". | ||
| Line 55: | Line 55: | ||
In 1980, [[Tim Berners-Lee]] created [[ENQUIRE]], an early hypertext database system somewhat like a [[wiki]] but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and [[hypermedia]] programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the [[World Wide Web]]. [[Guide (hypertext)|Guide]], the first significant hypertext system for [[personal computer]]s, was developed by Peter J. Brown at the [[University of Kent]] in 1982. | In 1980, [[Tim Berners-Lee]] created [[ENQUIRE]], an early hypertext database system somewhat like a [[wiki]] but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and [[hypermedia]] programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the [[World Wide Web]]. [[Guide (hypertext)|Guide]], the first significant hypertext system for [[personal computer]]s, was developed by Peter J. Brown at the [[University of Kent]] in 1982. | ||
In 1980, [[Roberto Busa]],<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |language=it |first1=Andrea |last1=Tornielli |url=http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/documenti/dettaglio-articolo/articolo/web-busa-6893/ |title=Padre Busa, il gesuita che ha inventato l'ipertesto |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229160656/http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/documenti/dettaglio-articolo/articolo/web-busa-6893/ |archive-date=2014-12-29 |publisher=[[La Stampa]] |website=VaticanInsider |date=2011}}</ref> an Italian [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis,<ref>Matthew Zepelin, "[https://www.academia.edu/8457616/Computers_and_the_Catholic_Mind_Religion_Technology_and_Social_Criticism_in_the_Postwar_United_States Computers and the Catholic Mind: Religion, Technology, and Social Criticism in the Postwar United States]", July 5, 2014.</ref> published the ''[[Index Thomisticus]]'', as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of [[Aquinas]]'s works.<ref>[ | In 1980, [[Roberto Busa]],<ref>{{cite web |url-status=dead |language=it |first1=Andrea |last1=Tornielli |url=http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/documenti/dettaglio-articolo/articolo/web-busa-6893/ |title=Padre Busa, il gesuita che ha inventato l'ipertesto |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229160656/http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/documenti/dettaglio-articolo/articolo/web-busa-6893/ |archive-date=2014-12-29 |publisher=[[La Stampa]] |website=VaticanInsider |date=2011}}</ref> an Italian [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis,<ref>Matthew Zepelin, "[https://www.academia.edu/8457616/Computers_and_the_Catholic_Mind_Religion_Technology_and_Social_Criticism_in_the_Postwar_United_States Computers and the Catholic Mind: Religion, Technology, and Social Criticism in the Postwar United States]", July 5, 2014.</ref> published the ''[[Index Thomisticus]]'', as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of [[Aquinas]]'s works.<ref>[https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/cronaca/2011/10-agosto-2011/morto-padre-busa-stato-pioniere-informatica-linguistica-1901272086173.shtml ''Morto padre Busa, è stato il pioniere dell'informatica linguistica''], ''Corriere del Veneto'', 15. August 2011</ref> Sponsored by the founder of IBM, [[Thomas J. Watson]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080322012519/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867529,00.html#ixzz1Ug8KDNnn "Religion: Sacred Electronics"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 31 December 1956, 15 August 2011</ref> the project lasted about 30 years (1949–1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the ''Index Thomisticus'' the first important hypertext work about [[Saint Thomas Aquinas]] books and of a few related authors.<ref>Thomas N. Winter, " Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Invention of the Machine-Generated Condordance", Digital commons, University of Nebraska [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1069&context=classicsfacpub]</ref> | ||
In 1983, [[Ben Shneiderman]] at the [[University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab]] led a group that developed the [[The Interactive Encyclopedia System|HyperTies]] system that was commercialized by [[Cognetics Corporation]]. They studied many designs before adopting the [https://blog.mozilla.org/en/internet-culture/why-are-hyperlinks-blue-revisited/ blue color for links]. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the [[Communications of the ACM]] as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book ''Hypertext Hands-On!''. | In 1983, [[Ben Shneiderman]] at the [[University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab]] led a group that developed the [[The Interactive Encyclopedia System|HyperTies]] system that was commercialized by [[Cognetics Corporation]]. They studied many designs before adopting the [https://blog.mozilla.org/en/internet-culture/why-are-hyperlinks-blue-revisited/ blue color for links]. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the [[Communications of the ACM]] as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book ''Hypertext Hands-On!''. | ||
In 1985, [[Academic American Encyclopedia#Electronic version|Grolier's Academic American Encyclopedia on CD-ROM]] was developed by [[Gary Kildall#Activenture|Activenture]]. The encyclopedia could be navigated through hypertext links, a [[Full text search|full text search engine]], and a traditional bookshelf interface.<ref>{{cite AV media |title = Optical Storage Devices (1985) |type = Television production |url = https://archive.org/details/OpticalS1985 |date = 1985-11-19 |people = [[Computer Chronicles|The Computer Chronicles]], [[Stewart Cheifet|Stewart Cheifet (creator)]] |interviewer-last1 = Cheifet |interviewer-first1 = Stewart |interviewer-link1 = Stewart Cheifet |interviewer-last2 = Kildall |interviewer-first2 = Gary |interviewer-link2 = Gary Kildall |time = 06:03 |access-date = 2025-12-21 |publisher = [[PBS]] |language = en }}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |title = Gary Kildall Special (1995) |type = Television production |url = https://archive.org/details/GaryKild |date = 1995-07-28 |people = [[Computer Chronicles|The Computer Chronicles]], [[Stewart Cheifet|Stewart Cheifet (creator)]], Patrick Moyroud (director) |interviewer-last1 = Cheifet |interviewer-first1 = Stewart |interviewer-link1 = Stewart Cheifet |time = 27:04 |access-date = 2025-12-21 |editor-last1 = Osciak |editor-first1 = Stephen N. |editor-last2 = Ragg |editor-first2 = Andrew |publisher = [[PBS]] |language = en }}</ref> | |||
In August 1987, [[Apple Computer]] released [[HyperCard]] for the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] line at the [[Macworld Conference & Expo|MacWorld convention]]. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's [[Guide (hypertext)|GUIDE]] (marketed by [[Office Workstations Ltd|OWL]] and released earlier that year) and Brown University's [[Intermedia (hypertext)|Intermedia]], led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) [[academic conference]] took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the branched literature writing software [[Storyspace]], were also demonstrated.<ref>Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). ''Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979–1994: A History'' Ablex Publishing, Norwood NJ, p. 213</ref> | In August 1987, [[Apple Computer]] released [[HyperCard]] for the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] line at the [[Macworld Conference & Expo|MacWorld convention]]. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's [[Guide (hypertext)|GUIDE]] (marketed by [[Office Workstations Ltd|OWL]] and released earlier that year) and Brown University's [[Intermedia (hypertext)|Intermedia]], led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) [[academic conference]] took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the branched literature writing software [[Storyspace]], were also demonstrated.<ref>Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). ''Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979–1994: A History'' Ablex Publishing, Norwood NJ, p. 213</ref> | ||
| Line 63: | Line 65: | ||
Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his [[Project Xanadu|Xanadu]] system for over two decades) convinced [[Autodesk]] to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. | Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his [[Project Xanadu|Xanadu]] system for over two decades) convinced [[Autodesk]] to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. | ||
In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at [[CERN]], proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb".<ref name = "WWW_proposal">{{Citation |url= | In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at [[CERN]], proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb".<ref name = "WWW_proposal">{{Citation |url=https://www.w3.org/Proposal.html |title=WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project |publisher=The World Wide Web consortium}}.</ref> | ||
{{blockquote | HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose the implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for [[information access]] needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN<ref name="WWW_proposal" /> }} | {{blockquote | HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose the implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for [[information access]] needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN<ref name="WWW_proposal" /> }} | ||
| Line 73: | Line 75: | ||
==Implementations== | ==Implementations== | ||
Besides the already mentioned [[Project Xanadu]], [[Hypertext Editing System]], [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]], [[HyperCard]], and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets: | Besides the already mentioned [[Project Xanadu]], [[Hypertext Editing System]], [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]], [[HyperCard]], and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets: | ||
[[Image:HypertextEditingSystemConsoleBrownUniv1969.jpg|thumb | [[Image:HypertextEditingSystemConsoleBrownUniv1969.jpg|thumb|Hypertext Editing System (HES) [[IBM 2250]] Display console – Brown University 1969]] | ||
* [[FRESS]] – a 1970s multi-user successor to the [[Hypertext Editing System]]. | * [[FRESS]] – a 1970s multi-user successor to the [[Hypertext Editing System]]. | ||
* [[ZOG (hypertext)|ZOG]] – a 1970s hypertext system developed at [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. | * [[ZOG (hypertext)|ZOG]] – a 1970s hypertext system developed at [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. | ||
| Line 98: | Line 100: | ||
{{Main |Hypertext fiction}} | {{Main |Hypertext fiction}} | ||
Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of [[electronic literature]], or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, | Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of [[electronic literature]], or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, [[Storyspace]] and [[Intermedia (hypertext)|Intermedia]], became available in the 1990s. [[Judy Malloy]]'s ''Uncle Roger'' (1986) and [[Michael Joyce (writer)|Michael Joyce]]'s ''[[afternoon, a story]]'' (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rettberg |first=Jill Walker |date=2012 |title=Electronic Literature Seen from a Distance: The Beginnings of a Field |url=http://www.dichtung-digital.org/2012/41/walker-rettberg.htm |journal=Dichtung Digital |issue=41 |hdl=1956/6272 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berens |first=K. I. |date=2014-07-30 |title=Judy Malloy's seat at the (database) table: A feminist reception history of early hypertext literature |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqu037 |journal=Literary and Linguistic Computing |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=340–348 |doi=10.1093/llc/fqu037 |issn=0268-1145|url-access=subscription }}</ref> | ||
An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. | An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. | ||
| Line 104: | Line 106: | ||
One of the most successful computer games, ''[[Myst]]'', was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, ''Myst'' redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative.<ref>{{cite web| last = Parrish| first = Jeremy| url = http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3134600| title = When SCUMM Ruled the Earth| website = [[1UP.com]]| access-date = 2008-05-02| archive-date = 2016-03-03| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213613/http://www.1up.com/features/essential-50-myst| url-status = dead}}</ref> | One of the most successful computer games, ''[[Myst]]'', was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, ''Myst'' redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative.<ref>{{cite web| last = Parrish| first = Jeremy| url = http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3134600| title = When SCUMM Ruled the Earth| website = [[1UP.com]]| access-date = 2008-05-02| archive-date = 2016-03-03| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213613/http://www.1up.com/features/essential-50-myst| url-status = dead}}</ref> | ||
Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a [[postmodernist]] fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext [[Gamebook]]s), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives.<ref>{{Citation | url = | Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a [[postmodernist]] fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext [[Gamebook]]s), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives.<ref>{{Citation | url = https://biblumliteraria.blogspot.com/2008/07/es-el-hipertexto-una-bendicin-o-un.html | title = ¿Es el hipertexto una bendición o un...? |trans-title=Is hypertext a blessing or a...? |date=Jul 2008 | publisher = Biblum literaria | language = es}}.</ref> However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way.<ref>{{Citation | publisher = U Calgary | place = [[Canada|CA]] | url = http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~scriptor/papers/arthur.html | title = The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight}}.</ref> This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like [[Marshall McLuhan]] who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift"{{Sfn | Green | 2001 | p = 15}} as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links. | ||
In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. [[Linda Dement]]'s ''Cyberflesh Girlmonster'' a hypertext [[CD-ROM]] that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella [[These Waves of Girls]] (2001) is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for [[Penelope Trunk]]) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche. | In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. [[Linda Dement]]'s ''Cyberflesh Girlmonster'' a hypertext [[CD-ROM]] that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella ''[[These Waves of Girls]]'' (2001) is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for [[Penelope Trunk]]) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche. | ||
===Forms=== | ===Forms=== | ||
| Line 112: | Line 114: | ||
[[File:Patchwork Girl Structure.png|thumb|A screenshot from a reading of Shelley Jackson's ''[[Patchwork Girl (hypertext)|Patchwork Girl]],'' where windows layer on top of each other]] | [[File:Patchwork Girl Structure.png|thumb|A screenshot from a reading of Shelley Jackson's ''[[Patchwork Girl (hypertext)|Patchwork Girl]],'' where windows layer on top of each other]] | ||
There are various forms of hypertext fiction, each of which is structured differently. Below are four: | There are various forms of hypertext fiction, each of which is structured differently. Below are four: | ||
* '''Axial''' hypertext fiction has the simplest structure. Its hypertext is situated along a linear axis. With a straight path from beginning to end, it is fairly easy for the reader to follow. An example of an axial hypertext fiction is [[The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam]]. | * '''Axial''' hypertext fiction has the simplest structure. Its hypertext is situated along a linear axis. With a straight path from beginning to end, it is fairly easy for the reader to follow. An example of an axial hypertext fiction is ''[[The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam]]''. | ||
* '''Arborescent''' hypertext fiction is more complex than the axial form. Its hypertext has a branching structure which resembles a tree, representing one beginning but many possible endings. The branches followed and ultimately the ending reached are determined by choices made by the reader at each branch point in the narrative. This is much like [[gamebook]] novels that allow readers to choose their own ending. | * '''Arborescent''' hypertext fiction is more complex than the axial form. Its hypertext has a branching structure which resembles a tree, representing one beginning but many possible endings. The branches followed and ultimately the ending reached are determined by choices made by the reader at each branch point in the narrative. This is much like [[gamebook]] novels that allow readers to choose their own ending. | ||
* '''Networked''' hypertext fiction is more complex than both axial and arborescent forms. It consists of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation. Unlike the arborescent form, networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings. An example of a networked hypertext is [[Shelley Jackson]]'s [[Patchwork Girl (hypertext)|Patchwork Girl]]. | * '''Networked''' hypertext fiction is more complex than both axial and arborescent forms. It consists of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation. Unlike the arborescent form, networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings. An example of a networked hypertext is [[Shelley Jackson]]'s ''[[Patchwork Girl (hypertext)|Patchwork Girl]]''. | ||
* '''Layered''' hypertext fiction consist of two layers of linked pages. Each layer is [[wikt:doubly-linked|doubly linked]] sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer. The top layer contains plain text, the bottom multimedia layer provides photos, sounds and video. In the Dutch historical novel ''{{Interlanguage link|De man met de hoed|nl}}''<ref>{{cite web|url= | * '''Layered''' hypertext fiction consist of two layers of linked pages. Each layer is [[wikt:doubly-linked|doubly linked]] sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer. The top layer contains plain text, the bottom multimedia layer provides photos, sounds and video. In the Dutch historical novel ''{{Interlanguage link|De man met de hoed|nl}}''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demanmetdehoed.nl/presentatie/Welkom.html|title=Welkom|website=demanmetdehoed.nl}}</ref> designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by Eisjen Schaaf, Pauline van de Ven, and [[Paul Vitanyi|Paul Vitányi]], the structure is proposed to enhance the atmosphere of the time, to enrich the text with research and family archive material and to enable readers to insert memories of their own while preserving tension and storyline. | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| Line 122: | Line 124: | ||
* [[Distributed Data Management Architecture]] | * [[Distributed Data Management Architecture]] | ||
* [[HTML]] (HyperText Markup Language) | * [[HTML]] (HyperText Markup Language) | ||
* [[Http|HTTP]] | * [[Http|HTTP]] | ||
* [[Hyperkino]] | * [[Hyperkino]] | ||
| Line 139: | Line 140: | ||
* {{cite journal | last = Engelbart | first = Douglas C | title = Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework | id = AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579 | year = 1962 | url = http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html | access-date = 2011-05-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110504035147/http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html | archive-date = 2011-05-04 | url-status = dead |website=Doug Engelbart Institute }} | * {{cite journal | last = Engelbart | first = Douglas C | title = Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework | id = AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579 | year = 1962 | url = http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html | access-date = 2011-05-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110504035147/http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html | archive-date = 2011-05-04 | url-status = dead |website=Doug Engelbart Institute }} | ||
* {{cite conference | last= Nelson | first= Theodor H. | title= Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate | book-title=ACM/CSC-ER Proceedings of the 1965 20th national conference |date=September 1965 | url= http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036}} | * {{cite conference | last= Nelson | first= Theodor H. | title= Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate | book-title=ACM/CSC-ER Proceedings of the 1965 20th national conference |date=September 1965 | url= http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036}} | ||
* {{cite journal | last=Nelson | first=Theodor H. | title=No More Teachers' Dirty Looks | journal= [[Computer Decisions]] |date=September 1970 | url= | * {{cite journal | last=Nelson | first=Theodor H. | title=No More Teachers' Dirty Looks | journal= [[Computer Decisions]] |date=September 1970 | url= https://www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.html}} | ||
* {{cite conference | last =Nelson | first = Theodor H | author-mask = 3 | title=A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything | book-title=AFIPS Conference Proceedings | volume = 42 | year=1973 | pages= M22–23}} | * {{cite conference | last =Nelson | first = Theodor H | author-mask = 3 | title=A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything | book-title=AFIPS Conference Proceedings | volume = 42 | year=1973 | pages= M22–23}} | ||
* {{cite journal | last1 =Yankelovich | first1 =Nicole | last2 =Landow | first2 = George P | last3 = Cody | first3 = David | title = Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students | journal= SIGCUE Outlook | volume=20 | issue=3 | year=1987}} | * {{cite journal | last1 =Yankelovich | first1 =Nicole | last2 =Landow | first2 = George P | last3 = Cody | first3 = David | title = Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students | journal= SIGCUE Outlook | volume=20 | issue=3 | year=1987}} | ||
* {{cite book | last= Heim | first=Michael | title=Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing | location=New Haven | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | isbn= 978-0-300-07746-9}} | * {{cite book | last= Heim | first=Michael | title=Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing | location=New Haven | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | isbn= 978-0-300-07746-9}} | ||
* {{cite journal | last=van Dam | first=Andries | title=Hypertext: '87 keynote address | journal = Communications of the ACM |date=July 1988 | volume=31 | pages=887–95 | url= | * {{cite journal | last=van Dam | first=Andries | title=Hypertext: '87 keynote address | journal = Communications of the ACM |date=July 1988 | volume=31 | pages=887–95 | url= https://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html | doi=10.1145/48511.48519 | issue=7| s2cid=489007 | doi-access=free }} | ||
* {{Cite journal | title=Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey | journal=Computer | volume=20 | issue= 9 | pages = 17–41 | last=Conklin | first=J. | year=1987 | doi= 10.1109/MC.1987.1663693| s2cid=9188803 }} | * {{Cite journal | title=Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey | journal=Computer | volume=20 | issue= 9 | pages = 17–41 | last=Conklin | first=J. | year=1987 | doi= 10.1109/MC.1987.1663693| s2cid=9188803 }} | ||
* {{cite journal | last=Byers | first=T. J. | title=Built by association | journal=PC World |date=April 1987 | volume=5 | pages= 244–51}} | * {{cite journal | last=Byers | first=T. J. | title=Built by association | journal=PC World |date=April 1987 | volume=5 | pages= 244–51}} | ||
| Line 149: | Line 150: | ||
* {{cite book | last=Nelson | first=Theodor H. | title=Literary Machines 93.1 | location= Sausalito, CA | publisher =Mindful Press | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-89347-062-3}} | * {{cite book | last=Nelson | first=Theodor H. | title=Literary Machines 93.1 | location= Sausalito, CA | publisher =Mindful Press | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-89347-062-3}} | ||
* {{cite book | last1=Moulthrop | first1=Stuart | last2=Kaplan | first2=Nancy | year=1994 | title=Literacy and computers: The complications of teaching and learning with technology | chapter=They became what they beheld: The futility of resistance in the space of electronic writing | pages=220–237}} | * {{cite book | last1=Moulthrop | first1=Stuart | last2=Kaplan | first2=Nancy | year=1994 | title=Literacy and computers: The complications of teaching and learning with technology | chapter=They became what they beheld: The futility of resistance in the space of electronic writing | pages=220–237}} | ||
* {{cite journal | last=Cicconi| first=Sergio | title=Hypertextuality | journal= Mediapolis | publisher = Ed. Sam Inkinen & De Gruyter | place = Berlino & New York | pages=21–43 | year=1999 | doi=10.1515/9783110807059.21 | isbn=978-3-11-016141-0 | url= | * {{cite journal | last=Cicconi| first=Sergio | title=Hypertextuality | journal= Mediapolis | publisher = Ed. Sam Inkinen & De Gruyter | place = Berlino & New York | pages=21–43 | year=1999 | doi=10.1515/9783110807059.21 | isbn=978-3-11-016141-0 | url= https://www.cisenet.com/cisenet/writing/essays/hypertextuality.htm| url-access=subscription }} | ||
* {{cite book | last=Bolter | first= Jay David | title= Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print | location=New Jersey | publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | year=2001 | isbn = 978-0-8058-2919-8}} | * {{cite book | last=Bolter | first= Jay David | title= Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print | location=New Jersey | publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | year=2001 | isbn = 978-0-8058-2919-8}} | ||
* {{cite book | last=Landow | first=George | title=Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society) | location = Baltimore | publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | isbn= 978-0-8018-8257-9}} | * {{cite book | last=Landow | first=George | title=Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society) | location = Baltimore | publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | isbn= 978-0-8018-8257-9}} | ||
| Line 163: | Line 164: | ||
===Hypertext conferences=== | ===Hypertext conferences=== | ||
* [ | * [https://www.aace.org/conf/edmedia/ EdMedia + Innovate Learning], an international conference organized by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. | ||
* [https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/conference_series/acm_conference_on_hypertext_and_hypermedia HyperText - ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia] | * [https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/conference_series/acm_conference_on_hypertext_and_hypermedia HyperText - ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia] | ||