Hacker: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Coding da Vinci - Der Kultur-Hackathon (14123515524).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Participants in the Coding da Vinci [[hackathon]], [[Berlin]], [[Germany]], April 26–27, 2014|alt=A group of people working on laptop computers at a common table]]

[[File:Coding da Vinci - Der Kultur-Hackathon (14123515524).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Participants in the Coding da Vinci [[hackathon]], [[Berlin]], Germany, April 26–27, 2014|alt=A group of people working on laptop computers at a common table]]

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Hacking can also have a broader sense of any roundabout solution to a problem, or programming and hardware development in general, and [[hacker culture]] has spread the term's broader usage to the general public even outside the profession or hobby of electronics (see [[life hack]]).

== Etymology ==

The term "hacker" is an agent noun formed from the verb "hack"<ref>{{cite web |title=Hacker - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hacker |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> based on PIE *keg- (hook, tooth),<ref>{{cite web |title=Hack - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hack |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> which is also the source of the Russian word kogot "claw".<ref>{{cite web |title=*keg- - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/*keg- |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

The term "hacker" is an agent noun formed from the verb "hack"<ref>{{cite web |title=Hacker - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hacker |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> based on [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] *keg- (hook, tooth),<ref>{{cite web |title=Hack - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hack |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> which is also the source of the Russian word kogot "claw".<ref>{{cite web |title=*keg- - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/*keg- |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== Definitions ==

{{Further|Security hacker|~~White hat (~~computer ~~security)~~|~~Black hat (~~computer ~~security)~~|~~Grey hat~~}}

[[File:Hackers working on Linux laptop with computer disks and repair kits - Milano 2022.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hackers working on a [[Linux]] laptop with computer disks and repair kits in 2022]]

Mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | title = In '95, these people defined tech: Gates, Bezos, Mitnick and more | access-date = 2020-05-28 | first = Jon | last = Skillings | date = 2020-05-27 | website = [[CNET]] | quote = The term "hacker" started out with a benign definition: It described computer programmers who were especially adept at solving technical problems. By the mid-1990s, however, it was widely used to refer to those who turned their skills toward breaking into computers, whether for mild mischief or criminal gain. Which brings us to [[Kevin Mitnick]]. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200528205149/https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | archive-date = 2020-05-28 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

[[~~File:Hackers working on Linux laptop with~~ computer ~~disks and repair kits - Milano 2022~~.~~jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hackers working on~~ a [[~~Linux~~]] ~~laptop with computer disks and repair kits in 2022~~.]]

Historically, it was defined in 1983 as someone who is able to subvert [[computer security]] possibly for malicious purposes{{ref RFC|1983}}. in 1984 a hacker was defined as an advanced computer technology enthusiast (both hardware and software) and adherent of programming subculture; see [[hacker culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]|year=1984}}</ref>

~~Reflecting the two types of hackers, there are two definitions of the word "hacker":~~

# Originally, hacker simply meant advanced computer technology enthusiast (both hardware and software) and adherent of programming subculture; see [[hacker culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]|year=1984}}</ref>

~~# Someone who is able to subvert [[computer security]]. If doing so for malicious purposes, the person can also be called a [[Security hacker|cracker]].{{ref RFC|1983}}~~

Mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | title = In '95, these people defined tech: Gates, Bezos, Mitnick and more | access-date = 2020-05-28 | first = Jon | last = Skillings | date = 2020-05-27 | website = [[CNET]] | quote = The term "hacker" started out with a benign definition: It described computer programmers who were especially adept at solving technical problems. By the mid-1990s, however, it was widely used to refer to those who turned their skills toward breaking into computers, whether for mild mischief or criminal gain. Which brings us to [[Kevin Mitnick]]. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200528205149/https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | archive-date = 2020-05-28 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> This includes what hacker jargon calls [[script kiddie]]s, less skilled criminals who rely on tools written by others with very little knowledge about the way they work.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Samuel Chng |author2=Han Yu Lu |author3=Ayush Kumar |author4=David Yau |date=Mar 2022 |title=Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework |journal=Computers in Human Behavior Reports |volume=5 |issn=2451-9588 |pages= |doi=10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100167 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ~~This~~ usage ~~has become so~~ predominant ~~that the general public is largely unaware that different meanings exist~~.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Yagoda|first1=Ben|title=A Short History of "Hack"|url=http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=November 3, 2015|archive-date=November 10, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110004249/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|url-status=live}}</ref> Though the self-designation of hobbyists as hackers is generally acknowledged and accepted by computer security hackers, people from the programming subculture consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and emphasize the difference between the two by calling security breakers "crackers" (analogous to a [[safecracker]]).

This includes what hacker jargon calls [[script kiddie]]s, less skilled criminals who rely on tools written by others with very little knowledge about the way they work.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Samuel Chng |author2=Han Yu Lu |author3=Ayush Kumar |author4=David Yau |date=Mar 2022 |title=Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework |journal=Computers in Human Behavior Reports |volume=5 |issn=2451-9588 |pages= |doi=10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100167 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The criminal usage is now predominant.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Yagoda|first1=Ben|title=A Short History of "Hack"|url=http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=November 3, 2015|archive-date=November 10, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110004249/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|url-status=live}}</ref>

The controversy is usually based on the assertion that the term originally meant someone messing about with something in a positive sense, that is, using playful cleverness to achieve a goal. But then, it is supposed, the meaning of the term shifted over the decades and came to refer to computer criminals.{{ref RFC|1392}}

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Sometimes, "hacker" is simply used synonymously with "[[geek]]": "A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment."<ref>[[Alan Kay]] quoted in [[Stewart Brand]], "S P A C E W A R: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums:" In ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' (1972)</ref>

[[Fred Shapiro]] thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found that the malicious connotations were already present at MIT in 1963 (quoting ''[[The Tech (newspaper)|The Tech]]'', an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,<ref name="shapiro">Fred Shapiro: [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 Antedating of "Hacker"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025200829/http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 |date=2007-10-25 }}. ''American Dialect Society Mailing List'' (13. June 2003)</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|title=The Origin of "Hacker"|date=April 1, 2008|access-date=March 1, 2021|archive-date=March 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304085653/https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|url-status=live}}</ref> that is, the [[~~phreaker~~]] ~~movement that developed into~~ the ~~computer security~~ hacker ~~subculture of today~~.

[[Fred Shapiro]] thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found that the malicious connotations were already present at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in 1963 (quoting ''[[The Tech (newspaper)|The Tech]]'', an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,<ref name="shapiro">Fred Shapiro: [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 Antedating of "Hacker"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025200829/http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 |date=2007-10-25 }}. ''American Dialect Society Mailing List'' (13. June 2003)</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|title=The Origin of "Hacker"|date=April 1, 2008|access-date=March 1, 2021|archive-date=March 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304085653/https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Security-related hacking ===

[[Security hacker]]s are people involved with circumvention of computer security. There are several types, including:

;[[White hat (computer security)|White hat]]:Hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system [[Vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]] that can be mitigated. White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work. Their work is not illegal because it is done with the system owner's consent.

;[[Black hat hacking|Black hat]] or Cracker:Hackers with malicious intentions. They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain. Their work is usually illegal. A cracker is like a black hat hacker,<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are crackers and hackers? {{!}} Security News|url=http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515044743/http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|archive-date=May 15, 2011|access-date=2016-09-10|website=www.pctools.com}}</ref> but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize. Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to steal information or gain royalties.

;[[Grey hat]]:Computer security experts who may sometimes violate laws or typical [[Hacker ethic|ethical standards]], but do not have the malicious intent typical of a black hat hacker.

=== Civic hacker ===

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* {{Cite web |last=Reyes |first=Juliana |date=2014-01-09 |title=This app shows you how often SEPTA Regional Rail is late (with fixes) |url=https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |archive-date=2023-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204180732/https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/ |url-status=live }}

* {{Cite web |last=Metro Magazine Staff |date=2014-01-22 |title=SEPTA rider creates app proposing 'better schedules' |url=https://www.metro-magazine.com/10038748/septa-rider-creates-app-proposing-better-schedules |access-date=2023-11-20 |archive-date=2023-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120220825/https://www.metro-magazine.com/10038748/septa-rider-creates-app-proposing-better-schedules |url-status=live }}</ref>

:

~~=== Security-related hacking ===~~

~~[[Security hacker]]s are people involved with circumvention of computer security. There are several types, including~~:

;[[White hat (computer security)|White hat]]:Hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system [[Vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]] that can be mitigated. White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work. Their work is not illegal because it is done with the system owner's consent.

;[[Black hat hacking|Black hat]] or Cracker:Hackers with malicious intentions. They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain. Their work is usually illegal. A cracker is like a black hat hacker,<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are crackers and hackers? {{!}} Security News|url=http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515044743/http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|archive-date=May 15, 2011|access-date=2016-09-10|website=www.pctools.com}}</ref> but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize. Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to steal information or gain royalties.

~~;[[Grey hat]]:Computer security experts who may sometimes violate laws or typical [[Hacker ethic|ethical standards]], but do not have the malicious intent typical of a black hat hacker.~~

=== Hacker culture ===

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[[File:Bending.jpg|thumb|A [[DIY]] musician probes the circuit board of a synthesizer for [[Circuit bending|"bends"]] using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips.]]

[[Hacker culture]] is an idea derived from a community of enthusiast [[computer programmer]]s and [[systems designer]]s in the 1960s around the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]'s (MIT's) [[Tech Model Railroad Club]] (TMRC)<ref>{{cite web |last=London |first=Jay |date=6 April 2015 |title=Happy 60th Birthday to the Word "Hack" |url=https://slice.mit.edu/2015/04/06/happy-birthday-hack/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507193534/https://slice.mit.edu/2015/04/06/happy-birthday-hack/ |archive-date=7 May 2016 |access-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> and the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Raymond |first=Eric |author-link=Eric S. Raymond |date=25 August 2000 |title=The Early Hackers |url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html |access-date=6 December 2008 |work=A Brief History of Hackerdom |publisher=Thyrsus Enterprises |archive-date=10 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010145931/http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The concept expanded to the hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g. the [[Homebrew Computer Club]])<ref>Levy, part 2</ref> and on software ([[video game]]s,<ref>Levy, part 3</ref> [[software cracking]], the [[demoscene]]) in the 1980s/1990s. Later, this would go on to encompass many new definitions such as art, and [[life hacking]].

~~== Motives ==~~

Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks. First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing [[credit card number]]s or manipulating [[banking system]]s. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, [[corporate espionage]] allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. Lastly, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through [[cyberspace]].<ref>Lloyd, Gene. "Developing Algorithms to Identify Spoofed Internet Traffic". Colorado Technical University, 2014</ref>

== Overlaps and differences ==

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An encounter of the programmer and the computer security hacker subculture occurred at the end of the 1980s, when a group of computer security hackers, sympathizing with the [[Chaos Computer Club]] (which disclaimed any knowledge in these activities), broke into computers of American military organizations and academic institutions. They sold data from these machines to the Soviet secret service, one of them in order to fund his drug addiction. The case was solved when [[Clifford Stoll]], a scientist working as a system administrator, found ways to log the attacks and to trace them back (with the help of many others). ''[[23 (film)|23]]'', a German film adaption with fictional elements, shows the events from the attackers' perspective. Stoll described the case in his book ''[[The Cuckoo's Egg]]'' and in the TV documentary ''The KGB, the Computer, and Me'' from the other perspective. According to Eric S. Raymond, it "nicely illustrates the difference between 'hacker' and 'cracker'. Stoll's portrait of himself, his lady Martha, and his friends at Berkeley and on the Internet paints a marvelously vivid picture of how hackers and the people around them like to live and how they think."<ref>{{cite book |url=http://catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html |title=Part III. Appendices |series=The Jargon Lexicon |access-date=2008-10-18 |archive-date=2008-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913155658/http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

~~== Representation in media ==~~

The [[mainstream media]]'s current usage of the term may be traced back to the early 1980s. When the term, previously used only among computer enthusiasts, was introduced to wider society by the mainstream media in 1983,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deffree|first=Suzanne|date=2019-09-05|title=EDN - 'Hacker' is used by mainstream media, September 5, 1983|url=https://www.edn.com/hacker-is-used-by-mainstream-media-september-5-1983/|access-date=2020-09-07|website=EDN|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-04-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429123857/https://www.edn.com/hacker-is-used-by-mainstream-media-september-5-1983/|url-status=live}}</ref> even those in the computer community referred to computer intrusion as hacking, although not as the exclusive definition of the word. In reaction to the increasing media use of the term exclusively with the criminal connotation, the computer community began to differentiate their terminology. Alternative terms such as [[Security cracking|cracker]] were coined in an effort to maintain the distinction between hackers within the legitimate programmer community and those performing computer break-ins. Further terms such as [[Black hat hacking|black hat]], [[White hat (computer security)|white hat]] and [[gray hat]] developed when laws against breaking into computers came into effect, to distinguish criminal activities from those activities which were legal.

[[News media in the United States|Network news']] use of the term consistently pertains primarily to criminal activities, despite attempts by the technical community to preserve and distinguish the original meaning. Today, the mainstream media and general public continue to describe computer criminals, with all levels of technical sophistication, as "hackers" and do not generally make use of the word in any of its non-criminal connotations. Members of the media sometimes seem unaware of the distinction, grouping legitimate "hackers" such as [[Linus Torvalds]] and [[Steve Wozniak]] along with criminal "crackers".<ref>{{cite web|last=DuBois|first=Shelley|title=A who's who of hackers|url=http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/06/16/a-whos-who-of-hackers/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110619062251/http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/06/16/a-whos-who-of-hackers/|archive-date=June 19, 2011|access-date=19 June 2011|work=Reporter|publisher=Fortune Magazine}}</ref>

As a result, the definition is still the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural [[jargon]] and used negatively,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html |title=TMRC site |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503072049/http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html |archive-date=2006-05-03}}</ref> including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware. Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still use the term in both senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended.

However, because the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized, "hacker" can therefore be seen as a [[shibboleth]], identifying those who use the technically oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community. On the other hand, due to the variety of industries software designers may find themselves in, many prefer not to be referred to as hackers because the word holds a negative denotation in many of those industries.

A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that "hacking" describes a collection of skills and tools which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to [[locksmithing]], specifically picking locks, which is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of [[script kiddies]] in the popular usage of "hacker", despite their lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base.

== See also ==

*[[Script kiddie]], an unskilled computer security attacker

* [[Hacktivism]], conducting cyber attacks on a business or organisation in order to bring social change

*[[Hacktivism]], conducting cyber attacks on a business or organisation in order to bring social change

* [[List of computer books#Hackers and hacker culture|List of hacking books]]

== References ==

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=== Free software/open source ===

* {{cite book | last = Graham | first = Paul| author-link = Paul Graham (~~computer~~ programmer) | title = [[Hackers and Painters]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-596-00662-4 | publisher = O'Reilly | location = Beijing}}

* {{cite book | last = Graham | first = Paul| author-link = Paul Graham (programmer) | title = [[Hackers and Painters]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-596-00662-4 | publisher = O'Reilly | location = Beijing}}

* {{cite book | last = Himanen | first = Pekka | year = 2001 | title = The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age | publisher = Random House | isbn = 0-375-50566-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/hackerethic00pekk }}

* {{cite book | last1 = Lakhani | first1 = Karim R. | last2 = Wolf | first2 = Robert G. | chapter-url = http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-352-managing-innovation-emerging-trends-spring-2005/readings/lakhaniwolf.pdf | chapter = Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects | editor1-first = J. | editor1-last = Feller | editor2-first = B. | editor2-last = Fitzgerald | editor3-first = S. | editor3-last = Hissam | editor4-first = K. R. | display-editors = 3 | editor4-last = Lakhani | title = Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2005 | access-date = 2016-03-25 | archive-date = 2015-09-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923034503/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-352-managing-innovation-emerging-trends-spring-2005/readings/lakhaniwolf.pdf | url-status = live }}

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== External links ==

* {{Wikibooks inline|Hacking}}

* {{Wiktionary-inline|~~Hacker~~}}

* {{Wiktionary-inline|hacker}}

* {{Commons category-inline|Hackers}}

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Person skilled in information technology}}
+{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2025}}
 {{Other uses}}
 {{Pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
-[[File:Coding da Vinci - Der Kultur-Hackathon (14123515524).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Participants in the Coding da Vinci [[hackathon]], [[Berlin]], [[Germany]], April 26–27, 2014|alt=A group of people working on laptop computers at a common table]]
+[[File:Coding da Vinci - Der Kultur-Hackathon (14123515524).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Participants in the Coding da Vinci [[hackathon]], [[Berlin]], Germany, April 26–27, 2014|alt=A group of people working on laptop computers at a common table]]
 {{Computer hacking}}
@@ Line 8: / Line 9: @@
 Hacking can also have a broader sense of any roundabout solution to a problem, or programming and hardware development in general, and [[hacker culture]] has spread the term's broader usage to the general public even outside the profession or hobby of electronics (see [[life hack]]).
 == Etymology ==
-The term "hacker" is an agent noun formed from the verb "hack"<ref>{{cite web |title=Hacker - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hacker |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> based on PIE *keg- (hook, tooth),<ref>{{cite web |title=Hack - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hack |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> which is also the source of the Russian word kogot "claw".<ref>{{cite web |title=*keg- - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/*keg- |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
+The term "hacker" is an agent noun formed from the verb "hack"<ref>{{cite web |title=Hacker - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hacker |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> based on [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] *keg- (hook, tooth),<ref>{{cite web |title=Hack - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hack |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref> which is also the source of the Russian word kogot "claw".<ref>{{cite web |title=*keg- - Etymology, Origin & Meaning |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/*keg- |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=[[Etymonline]] |access-date=14 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
 == Definitions ==
-{{Further|Security hacker|White hat (computer security)|Black hat (computer security)|Grey hat}}
+{{Further|Security hacker}}
+[[File:Hackers working on Linux laptop with computer disks and repair kits - Milano 2022.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hackers working on a [[Linux]] laptop with computer disks and repair kits in 2022]]
+Mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | title = In '95, these people defined tech: Gates, Bezos, Mitnick and more | access-date = 2020-05-28 | first = Jon | last = Skillings | date = 2020-05-27 | website = [[CNET]] | quote = The term "hacker" started out with a benign definition: It described computer programmers who were especially adept at solving technical problems. By the mid-1990s, however, it was widely used to refer to those who turned their skills toward breaking into computers, whether for mild mischief or criminal gain. Which brings us to [[Kevin Mitnick]]. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200528205149/https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | archive-date = 2020-05-28 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>
-[[File:Hackers working on Linux laptop with computer disks and repair kits - Milano 2022.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hackers working on a [[Linux]] laptop with computer disks and repair kits in 2022.]]
+Historically, it was defined in 1983 as someone who is able to subvert [[computer security]] possibly for malicious purposes{{ref RFC|1983}}. in 1984 a hacker was defined as an  advanced computer technology enthusiast (both hardware and software) and adherent of programming subculture; see [[hacker culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]|year=1984}}</ref>
-Reflecting the two types of hackers, there are two definitions of the word "hacker":
-# Originally, hacker simply meant advanced computer technology enthusiast (both hardware and software) and adherent of programming subculture; see [[hacker culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]|year=1984}}</ref>
-# Someone who is able to subvert [[computer security]]. If doing so for malicious purposes, the person can also be called a [[Security hacker|cracker]].{{ref RFC|1983}}
-Mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | title = In '95, these people defined tech: Gates, Bezos, Mitnick and more | access-date = 2020-05-28 | first = Jon | last = Skillings | date = 2020-05-27 | website = [[CNET]] | quote = The term "hacker" started out with a benign definition: It described computer programmers who were especially adept at solving technical problems. By the mid-1990s, however, it was widely used to refer to those who turned their skills toward breaking into computers, whether for mild mischief or criminal gain. Which brings us to [[Kevin Mitnick]]. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200528205149/https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/ | archive-date = 2020-05-28 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> This includes what hacker jargon calls [[script kiddie]]s, less skilled criminals who rely on tools written by others with very little knowledge about the way they work.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Samuel Chng |author2=Han Yu Lu |author3=Ayush Kumar |author4=David Yau |date=Mar 2022 |title=Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework |journal=Computers in Human Behavior Reports |volume=5 |issn=2451-9588 |pages= |doi=10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100167 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This usage has become so predominant that the general public is largely unaware that different meanings exist.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Yagoda|first1=Ben|title=A Short History of "Hack"|url=http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=November 3, 2015|archive-date=November 10, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110004249/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|url-status=live}}</ref> Though the self-designation of hobbyists as hackers is generally acknowledged and accepted by computer security hackers, people from the programming subculture consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and emphasize the difference between the two by calling security breakers "crackers" (analogous to a [[safecracker]]).
+This includes what hacker jargon calls [[script kiddie]]s, less skilled criminals who rely on tools written by others with very little knowledge about the way they work.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Samuel Chng |author2=Han Yu Lu |author3=Ayush Kumar |author4=David Yau |date=Mar 2022 |title=Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework |journal=Computers in Human Behavior Reports |volume=5 |issn=2451-9588 |pages= |doi=10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100167 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The criminal usage is now predominant.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Yagoda|first1=Ben|title=A Short History of "Hack"|url=http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=November 3, 2015|archive-date=November 10, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110004249/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack|url-status=live}}</ref>
 The controversy is usually based on the assertion that the term originally meant someone messing about with something in a positive sense, that is, using playful cleverness to achieve a goal. But then, it is supposed, the meaning of the term shifted over the decades and came to refer to computer criminals.{{ref RFC|1392}}
@@ Line 28: / Line 30: @@
 Sometimes, "hacker" is simply used synonymously with "[[geek]]": "A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment."<ref>[[Alan Kay]] quoted in [[Stewart Brand]], "S P A C E W A R: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums:" In ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' (1972)</ref>
-[[Fred Shapiro]] thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found that the malicious connotations were already present at MIT in 1963 (quoting ''[[The Tech (newspaper)|The Tech]]'', an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,<ref name="shapiro">Fred Shapiro: [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 Antedating of "Hacker"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025200829/http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 |date=2007-10-25 }}. ''American Dialect Society Mailing List'' (13. June 2003)</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|title=The Origin of "Hacker"|date=April 1, 2008|access-date=March 1, 2021|archive-date=March 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304085653/https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|url-status=live}}</ref> that is, the [[phreaker]] movement that developed into the computer security hacker subculture of today.
+[[Fred Shapiro]] thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found that the malicious connotations were already present at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in 1963 (quoting ''[[The Tech (newspaper)|The Tech]]'', an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,<ref name="shapiro">Fred Shapiro: [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 Antedating of "Hacker"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025200829/http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 |date=2007-10-25 }}. ''American Dialect Society Mailing List'' (13. June 2003)</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|title=The Origin of "Hacker"|date=April 1, 2008|access-date=March 1, 2021|archive-date=March 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304085653/https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/|url-status=live}}</ref>
+=== Security-related hacking ===
+[[Security hacker]]s are people involved with circumvention of computer security. There are several types, including:
+;[[White hat (computer security)|White hat]]:Hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system [[Vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]] that can be mitigated. White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work. Their work is not illegal because it is done with the system owner's consent.
+;[[Black hat hacking|Black hat]] or Cracker:Hackers with malicious intentions. They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain. Their work is usually illegal. A cracker is like a black hat hacker,<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are crackers and hackers? {{!}} Security News|url=http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515044743/http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|archive-date=May 15, 2011|access-date=2016-09-10|website=www.pctools.com}}</ref> but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize. Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to steal information or gain royalties.
+;[[Grey hat]]:Computer security experts who may sometimes violate laws or typical [[Hacker ethic|ethical standards]], but do not have the malicious intent typical of a black hat hacker.
 === Civic hacker ===
@@ Line 43: / Line 54: @@
 * {{Cite web |last=Reyes |first=Juliana |date=2014-01-09 |title=This app shows you how often SEPTA Regional Rail is late (with fixes) |url=https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |archive-date=2023-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204180732/https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/ |url-status=live }}
 * {{Cite web |last=Metro Magazine Staff |date=2014-01-22 |title=SEPTA rider creates app proposing 'better schedules' |url=https://www.metro-magazine.com/10038748/septa-rider-creates-app-proposing-better-schedules |access-date=2023-11-20 |archive-date=2023-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120220825/https://www.metro-magazine.com/10038748/septa-rider-creates-app-proposing-better-schedules |url-status=live }}</ref>
+:
-=== Security-related hacking ===
-[[Security hacker]]s are people involved with circumvention of computer security. There are several types, including:
-;[[White hat (computer security)|White hat]]:Hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system [[Vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]] that can be mitigated. White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work. Their work is not illegal because it is done with the system owner's consent.
-;[[Black hat hacking|Black hat]] or Cracker:Hackers with malicious intentions. They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain. Their work is usually illegal. A cracker is like a black hat hacker,<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are crackers and hackers? {{!}} Security News|url=http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515044743/http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/|archive-date=May 15, 2011|access-date=2016-09-10|website=www.pctools.com}}</ref> but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize. Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to steal information or gain royalties.
-;[[Grey hat]]:Computer security experts who may sometimes violate laws or typical [[Hacker ethic|ethical standards]], but do not have the malicious intent typical of a black hat hacker.
 === Hacker culture ===
@@ Line 58: / Line 60: @@
 [[File:Bending.jpg|thumb|A [[DIY]] musician probes the circuit board of a synthesizer for [[Circuit bending|"bends"]] using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips.]]
 [[Hacker culture]] is an idea derived from a community of enthusiast [[computer programmer]]s and [[systems designer]]s in the 1960s around the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]'s (MIT's) [[Tech Model Railroad Club]] (TMRC)<ref>{{cite web |last=London |first=Jay |date=6 April 2015 |title=Happy 60th Birthday to the Word "Hack" |url=https://slice.mit.edu/2015/04/06/happy-birthday-hack/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507193534/https://slice.mit.edu/2015/04/06/happy-birthday-hack/ |archive-date=7 May 2016 |access-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> and the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Raymond |first=Eric |author-link=Eric S. Raymond |date=25 August 2000 |title=The Early Hackers |url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html |access-date=6 December 2008 |work=A Brief History of Hackerdom |publisher=Thyrsus Enterprises |archive-date=10 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010145931/http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The concept expanded to the hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g. the [[Homebrew Computer Club]])<ref>Levy, part 2</ref> and on software ([[video game]]s,<ref>Levy, part 3</ref> [[software cracking]], the [[demoscene]]) in the 1980s/1990s. Later, this would go on to encompass many new definitions such as art, and [[life hacking]].
-== Motives ==
-Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks. First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing [[credit card number]]s or manipulating [[banking system]]s. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, [[corporate espionage]] allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. Lastly, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through [[cyberspace]].<ref>Lloyd, Gene. "Developing Algorithms to Identify Spoofed Internet Traffic". Colorado Technical University, 2014</ref>
 == Overlaps and differences ==
@@ Line 79: / Line 78: @@
 An encounter of the programmer and the computer security hacker subculture occurred at the end of the 1980s, when a group of computer security hackers, sympathizing with the [[Chaos Computer Club]] (which disclaimed any knowledge in these activities), broke into computers of American military organizations and academic institutions. They sold data from these machines to the Soviet secret service, one of them in order to fund his drug addiction. The case was solved when [[Clifford Stoll]], a scientist working as a system administrator, found ways to log the attacks and to trace them back (with the help of many others). ''[[23 (film)|23]]'', a German film adaption with fictional elements, shows the events from the attackers' perspective. Stoll described the case in his book ''[[The Cuckoo's Egg]]'' and in the TV documentary ''The KGB, the Computer, and Me'' from the other perspective. According to Eric S. Raymond, it "nicely illustrates the difference between 'hacker' and 'cracker'. Stoll's portrait of himself, his lady Martha, and his friends at Berkeley and on the Internet paints a marvelously vivid picture of how hackers and the people around them like to live and how they think."<ref>{{cite book |url=http://catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html |title=Part III. Appendices |series=The Jargon Lexicon |access-date=2008-10-18 |archive-date=2008-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913155658/http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
-== Representation in media ==
-The [[mainstream media]]'s current usage of the term may be traced back to the early 1980s. When the term, previously used only among computer enthusiasts, was introduced to wider society by the mainstream media in 1983,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deffree|first=Suzanne|date=2019-09-05|title=EDN - 'Hacker' is used by mainstream media, September 5, 1983|url=https://www.edn.com/hacker-is-used-by-mainstream-media-september-5-1983/|access-date=2020-09-07|website=EDN|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-04-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429123857/https://www.edn.com/hacker-is-used-by-mainstream-media-september-5-1983/|url-status=live}}</ref> even those in the computer community referred to computer intrusion as hacking, although not as the exclusive definition of the word. In reaction to the increasing media use of the term exclusively with the criminal connotation, the computer community began to differentiate their terminology. Alternative terms such as [[Security cracking|cracker]] were coined in an effort to maintain the distinction between hackers within the legitimate programmer community and those performing computer break-ins. Further terms such as [[Black hat hacking|black hat]], [[White hat (computer security)|white hat]] and [[gray hat]] developed when laws against breaking into computers came into effect, to distinguish criminal activities from those activities which were legal.
-[[News media in the United States|Network news']] use of the term consistently pertains primarily to criminal activities, despite attempts by the technical community to preserve and distinguish the original meaning. Today, the mainstream media and general public continue to describe computer criminals, with all levels of technical sophistication, as "hackers" and do not generally make use of the word in any of its non-criminal connotations. Members of the media sometimes seem unaware of the distinction, grouping legitimate "hackers" such as [[Linus Torvalds]] and [[Steve Wozniak]] along with criminal "crackers".<ref>{{cite web|last=DuBois|first=Shelley|title=A who's who of hackers|url=http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/06/16/a-whos-who-of-hackers/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110619062251/http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/06/16/a-whos-who-of-hackers/|archive-date=June 19, 2011|access-date=19 June 2011|work=Reporter|publisher=Fortune Magazine}}</ref>
-As a result, the definition is still the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural [[jargon]] and used negatively,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html |title=TMRC site |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503072049/http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html |archive-date=2006-05-03}}</ref> including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware. Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still use the term in both senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended.
-However, because the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized, "hacker" can therefore be seen as a [[shibboleth]], identifying those who use the technically oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community. On the other hand, due to the variety of industries software designers may find themselves in, many prefer not to be referred to as hackers because the word holds a negative denotation in many of those industries.
-A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that "hacking" describes a collection of skills and tools which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to [[locksmithing]], specifically picking locks, which is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of [[script kiddies]] in the popular usage of "hacker", despite their lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base.
 == See also ==
-*[[Script kiddie]], an unskilled computer security attacker
+* [[Hacktivism]], conducting cyber attacks on a business or organisation in order to bring social change
-*[[Hacktivism]], conducting cyber attacks on a business or organisation in order to bring social change
+* [[List of computer books#Hackers and hacker culture|List of hacking books]]
 == References ==
@@ Line 123: / Line 113: @@
 === Free software/open source ===
 {{refbegin}}
-* {{cite book | last = Graham | first = Paul| author-link = Paul Graham (computer programmer) | title = [[Hackers and Painters]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-596-00662-4 | publisher = O'Reilly | location = Beijing}}
+* {{cite book | last = Graham | first = Paul| author-link = Paul Graham (programmer) | title = [[Hackers and Painters]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-596-00662-4 | publisher = O'Reilly | location = Beijing}}
 * {{cite book | last = Himanen | first = Pekka | year = 2001 | title = The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age | publisher = Random House | isbn = 0-375-50566-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/hackerethic00pekk }}
 * {{cite book | last1 = Lakhani | first1 = Karim R. | last2 = Wolf | first2 = Robert G. | chapter-url = http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-352-managing-innovation-emerging-trends-spring-2005/readings/lakhaniwolf.pdf | chapter = Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects | editor1-first = J. | editor1-last = Feller | editor2-first = B. | editor2-last = Fitzgerald | editor3-first = S. | editor3-last = Hissam | editor4-first = K. R. | display-editors = 3 | editor4-last = Lakhani | title = Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2005 | access-date = 2016-03-25 | archive-date = 2015-09-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923034503/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-352-managing-innovation-emerging-trends-spring-2005/readings/lakhaniwolf.pdf | url-status = live }}
@@ Line 134: / Line 124: @@
 == External links ==
 * {{Wikibooks inline|Hacking}}
-* {{Wiktionary-inline|Hacker}}
+* {{Wiktionary-inline|hacker}}
 * {{Commons category-inline|Hackers}}

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