@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=March 2021}}
 {{History of computing}}
-The '''history of computing hardware''' spans the developments from early devices used for simple calculations to today's complex computers, encompassing advancements in both analog and digital technology.
+The '''history of computing hardware''' spans developments from early devices used for simple calculations to today's complex computers, encompassing advances in both analog and digital technology.
 The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary [[arithmetic]] operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. In later stages, computing devices began representing numbers in continuous forms, such as by distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a specific voltage level. Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism. Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results. The development of transistor technology, followed by the invention of integrated circuit chips, led to revolutionary breakthroughs.
@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 [[File:Os d'Ishango IRSNB.JPG|thumb|upright=0.6|left|The [[Ishango bone]] is thought to be a Paleolithic tally stick.{{efn|The [[Ishango bone]] is a [[bone tool]], dated to the [[Upper Paleolithic]] era, about 18,000 to 20,000&nbsp;BC. It is a dark brown length of bone, the [[fibula]] of a baboon. It has a series of tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the tool. It was found in 1960 in Belgian Congo.<ref>{{cite web |first=Phill |last=Schultz |date=7 September 1999 |publisher=University of Western Australia School of Mathematics |url=https://www.maths.uwa.edu.au/~schultz/3M3/history.html |title=A very brief history of pure mathematics: The Ishango Bone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721075947/http://www.maths.uwa.edu.au/~schultz/3M3/history.html |archive-date=2008-07-21}}</ref>}} ]]
 [[File:Abacus 6.png|thumb|right|[[Suanpan]] (The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408.)]]
-Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using [[one-to-one correspondence]] with [[finger-counting|fingers]]. The earliest counting device was probably a form of [[tally stick]]. The [[Lebombo bone]] from the mountains between [[Eswatini]] and [[South Africa]] may be the oldest known mathematical artifact.<ref name="Selin2008">{{cite book |first=Helaine|last=Selin|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA1356|date=12 March 2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2|page=1356|bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a [[baboon]]'s [[fibula]].<ref>{{mathworld |title=Lebombo Bone |urlname=LebomboBone |author=Pegg, Ed Jr. |author-link=Ed Pegg Jr. |ref=none}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Darling| first=David| title=The Universal Book of Mathematics From Abracadabra to Zeno's Paradoxes| year=2004| publisher=John Wiley & Sons| isbn= 978-0-471-27047-8}}</ref> Later record keeping aids throughout the [[Fertile Crescent]] included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.{{efn|According to {{harvnb|Schmandt-Besserat|1981}}, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a [[bill of lading]] or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 5000 years.<ref>{{cite web |last=Schmandt-Besserat |first=Denise |title=The Evolution of Writing |url=https://sites.utexas.edu/dsb/files/2014/01/evolution_writing.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130084757/http://www.laits.utexas.edu/ghazal/Chap1/dsb/chapter1.html |archive-date=2012-01-30 |url-status=live}}</ref>) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Eleanor |last=Robson |author-link=Eleanor Robson |year=2008 |title=Mathematics in Ancient Iraq |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-09182-2 |quote-page=5 |quote=calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a [[sexagesimal number system]] was in use 2350–2000 BCE.}}</ref>{{efn|Robson has recommended at least one supplement to {{harvp|Schmandt-Besserat|1981}}, e.g., a review, {{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.260.5114.1670 |last=Englund |first=R. |date=1993 |title=The origins of script |journal=Science |volume=260 |issue=5114 |pages=1670–1671 |pmid=17810210}}<ref>{{cite web |first=Eleanor |last=Robson |title=Bibliography of Mesopotamian Mathematics |url=https://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/erbiblio.html#genhist |access-date=2016-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616161807/http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/erbiblio.html#genhist |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref>}} The use of [[counting rods]] is one example. The [[abacus]] was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the [[Roman abacus]] was used in [[Babylonia]] as early as {{circa|2700}}–2300 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European [[counting house]], a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.
+Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, often using [[one-to-one correspondence]] with [[finger-counting|fingers]]. The earliest counting device was probably a form of [[tally stick]]. The [[Lebombo bone]] from the mountains between [[Eswatini]] and [[South Africa]] may be the oldest known mathematical artifact.<ref name="Selin2008">{{cite book |first=Helaine|last=Selin|author-link=Helaine Selin|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA1356|date=12 March 2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2|page=1356|bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a [[baboon]]'s [[fibula]].<ref>{{mathworld |title=Lebombo Bone |urlname=LebomboBone |author=Pegg, Ed Jr. |author-link=Ed Pegg Jr. |ref=none}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Darling| first=David| title=The Universal Book of Mathematics From Abracadabra to Zeno's Paradoxes| year=2004| publisher=John Wiley & Sons| isbn= 978-0-471-27047-8}}</ref> Later record keeping aids throughout the [[Fertile Crescent]] included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.{{efn|According to {{harvnb|Schmandt-Besserat|1981}}, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a [[bill of lading]] or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 5000 years.<ref>{{cite web |last=Schmandt-Besserat |first=Denise |title=The Evolution of Writing |url=https://sites.utexas.edu/dsb/files/2014/01/evolution_writing.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130084757/http://www.laits.utexas.edu/ghazal/Chap1/dsb/chapter1.html |archive-date=2012-01-30 |url-status=live}}</ref>) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Eleanor |last=Robson |author-link=Eleanor Robson |year=2008 |title=Mathematics in Ancient Iraq |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-09182-2 |quote-page=5 |quote=calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a [[sexagesimal number system]] was in use 2350–2000 BCE.}}</ref>{{efn|Robson has recommended at least one supplement to {{harvp|Schmandt-Besserat|1981}}, e.g., a review, {{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.260.5114.1670 |last=Englund |first=R. |date=1993 |title=The origins of script |journal=Science |volume=260 |issue=5114 |pages=1670–1671 |pmid=17810210}}<ref>{{cite web |first=Eleanor |last=Robson |title=Bibliography of Mesopotamian Mathematics |url=https://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/erbiblio.html#genhist |access-date=2016-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616161807/http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/erbiblio.html#genhist |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-06-16}}</ref>}} The use of [[counting rods]] is one example. The [[abacus]] was used early for arithmetic tasks. What is now called the [[Roman abacus]] was used in [[Babylonia]] as early as {{circa|2700}}–2300 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European [[counting house]], a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.
-Several [[analog computer]]s were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These included the [[astrolabe]] and [[Antikythera mechanism]] from the [[Hellenistic world]] (c. 150–100 BC).{{sfn|Lazos|1994}} In [[Roman Egypt]], [[Hero of Alexandria]] (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including [[Automaton|automata]] and a programmable [[cart]].<ref>{{citation |title=A programmable robot from 60 AD |first=Noel |last=Sharkey |date=4 July 2007 |volume=2611 |publisher=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/07/programmable-robot-from-60ad.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213205451/https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/07/programmable-robot-from-60ad.html|archive-date=13 December 2017}}</ref> The steam-powered automatic flute described by the ''[[Book of Ingenious Devices]]'' (850) by the Persian-Baghdadi [[Banū Mūsā brothers]] may have been the first programmable device.<ref name=Koetsier>{{Citation |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun  |year=2001 |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 |postscript=.}}</ref>
+Several [[analog computer]]s were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These included the [[astrolabe]] and [[Antikythera mechanism]] from the [[Hellenistic world]] (c. 150–100 BC).{{sfn|Lazos|1994}}
+A Greek bronze [[combination lock]] from the [[Augustus|Augustan]] or [[Hadrian]]ic period operated on a primitive form of mechanical logic: the central bolt was physically blocked from retracting until the notches of two independent rotary dials were correctly aligned.<ref>{{Cite journal
+ | last = Hoepfner
+ | first = Wolfram
+ | date = 1970
+ | title = Ein Kombinationsschloss aus dem Kerameikos
+ | journal = Archäologischer Anzeiger
+ | volume = 85
+ | issue = 2
+ | pages = 210–213
+ | language = de
+ | url = https://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/5321/1/Hoepfner_Ein_Kombinationsschloss_1970.pdf
+ | doi = 10.11588/propylaeumdok.00005321
+}}</ref> In [[Roman Egypt]], [[Hero of Alexandria]] (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including [[Automaton|automata]] and a programmable [[cart]].<ref>{{citation |title=A programmable robot from 60 AD |first=Noel |last=Sharkey |date=4 July 2007 |volume=2611 |publisher=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/07/programmable-robot-from-60ad.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213205451/https://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/2007/07/programmable-robot-from-60ad.html|archive-date=13 December 2017}}</ref> The steam-powered automatic flute described by the ''[[Book of Ingenious Devices]]'' (850) by the Persian-Baghdadi [[Banū Mūsā brothers]] may have been the first programmable device.<ref name=Koetsier>{{Citation |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun  |year=2001 |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 |postscript=.}}</ref>
 Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the [[planisphere]] and other mechanical computing devices invented by [[Al-Biruni]] (c. AD 1000); the [[equatorium]] and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by [[Al-Zarqali]] (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomers]] and engineers; and the astronomical [[clock tower]] of [[Su Song]] (1094) during the [[Song dynasty]]. The [[castle clock]], a [[hydropower]]ed mechanical [[astronomical clock]] invented by [[Ismail al-Jazari]] in 1206, was the first [[Computer programming|programmable]] analog computer.{{Disputed inline|for=The cited source doesn't support the claim, and the claim is misleading.|date=June 2022}}<ref name="Ancient Discoveries">{{citation|title=Episode 11: Ancient Robots|work=[[Ancient Discoveries]]|publisher=[[History Channel]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8|url-status=dead |access-date=2008-09-06|archive-date=2014-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301151115/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Howard R. |title=Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction |page=184 |date=1997 |publisher=University of Texas press |isbn=978-0-292-78149-8 |location=Austin}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author-link=Donald Routledge Hill |last=Hill |first=Donald Routledge |title=Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East |magazine=Scientific American |date=May 1991 |pages=64–69}} ([[cf.]] {{cite web |last=Hill |first=Donald Routledge |title=IX. Mechanical Engineering |url= http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm |work=History of Sciences in the Islamic World |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225091836/http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm |archive-date=2007-12-25 |url-status=dead}})</ref> [[Ramon Llull]] invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and [[information science]].
-=== Renaissance calculating tools===
+===Renaissance calculating tools===
 Scottish mathematician and physicist [[John Napier]] discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the [[logarithm]]s of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his '[[Napier's bones]]', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division.{{efn|A Spanish implementation of [[Napier's bones]] (1617), is documented in {{harvnb|Montaner|Simon|1887|pp=19–20}}.}}
@@ Line 42: / Line 56: @@
 ===Punched-card data processing===
-In 1804, French weaver [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]] developed [[Jacquard loom|a loom]] in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from [[punched cards]]. The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine proposed by [[Basile Bouchon]]. These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently [[numerical control]] machine tools.
+In 1804, French weaver [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]] developed [[Jacquard loom|a loom]] in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from [[punched cards]]. The paper tape could be changed without altering the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine proposed by [[Basile Bouchon]]. These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently [[numerical control]] machine tools.
 [[File:Early SSA accounting operations.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[IBM]] punched-card accounting machines, 1936]]
-In the late 1880s, the American [[Herman Hollerith]] invented data storage on [[punched card]]s that could then be read by a machine.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/hollerith.html |title=Herman Hollerith |website=Columbia University Computing History |publisher=Columbia University ACIS |access-date=2010-01-30 |archive-date=2011-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513134315/http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/hollerith.html |url-status=live}}</ref> To process these punched cards, he invented the [[tabulating machine|tabulator]] and the [[keypunch]] machine. His machines used electromechanical [[relay]]s and [[Mechanical counter|counters]].<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Leon E. Truesdell |last=Truesdell |first=Leon E. |title=The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890–1940|pages=47–55 |year=1965 |publisher=US GPO}}</ref> Hollerith's method was used in the [[1890 United States census]].<!-- The Census Bureau is not "an independent 3rd party" source – as required by Wikipedia – for Census Bureau performance claims. FOLLOWING CLAIM DELETED. -> and the completed results were "... finished months ahead of schedule and far under budget".<ref>{{cite web |title=Tabulation and Processing – History – U.S. Census Bureau |first=Jason |last=Gauthier |url=https://www.census.gov/history/www/innovations/technology/tabulation_and_processing.html |access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref>--> That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been.<ref name="11th census report">{{cite book |title=Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office]] |date=29 July 1895 |oclc=867910652|hdl=2027/osu.32435067619882 |page=9}} "You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census." — Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor in Charge</ref> Hollerith's company eventually became the core of [[International Business Machines|IBM]].
+In the late 1880s, the American [[Herman Hollerith]] invented data storage on [[punched card]]s that could then be read by a machine.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/hollerith.html |title=Herman Hollerith |website=Columbia University Computing History |publisher=Columbia University ACIS |access-date=2010-01-30 |archive-date=2011-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513134315/http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/hollerith.html |url-status=live}}</ref> To process these punched cards, he invented the [[tabulating machine|tabulator]] and the [[keypunch]] machine. His machines used electromechanical [[relay]]s and [[Mechanical counter|counters]].<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Leon E. Truesdell |last=Truesdell |first=Leon E. |title=The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890–1940|pages=47–55 |year=1965 |publisher=US GPO}}</ref> Hollerith's method was used in the [[1890 United States census]].<!-- The Census Bureau is not "an independent 3rd party" source – as required by Wikipedia – for Census Bureau performance claims. FOLLOWING CLAIM DELETED. -> and the completed results were "... finished months ahead of schedule and far under budget".<ref>{{cite web |title=Tabulation and Processing – History – U.S. Census Bureau |first=Jason |last=Gauthier |url=https://www.census.gov/history/www/innovations/technology/tabulation_and_processing.html |access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref>--> That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been.<ref name="11th census report">{{cite book |title=Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office]] |date=29 July 1895 |oclc=867910652|hdl=2027/osu.32435067619882 |page=9}} "You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census." — Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor in Charge</ref> Hollerith's company eventually became the core of [[IBM]].
 By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1920.html |website=IBM Archives |title=1920 |date=23 January 2003 |access-date=2020-12-01 |archive-date=2020-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029080349/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1920.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Machine functions were directed <!-- other than the calculators (602, 604...) unit record machines are not programmed – there is no sequence of operations on their control panels. See [[plugboard]]--> by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable [[plugboard|control panel]]s. When the United States instituted [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1930.html |website=IBM Archives |title=Chronological History of IBM: 1930s |date=23 January 2003 |access-date=2020-12-01 |archive-date=2020-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203145246/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1930.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration.
@@ Line 53: / Line 67: @@
 ===Calculators===
 {{Main|Calculator}}
 [[File:Curta01.JPG|thumb|upright|The [[Curta]] calculator could also do multiplication and division.]]
 By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer" was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Light|first=Jennifer S. |date=July 1999|title=When Computers Were Women|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=40|issue=3|pages=455–483 |s2cid=108407884 |doi=10.1353/tech.1999.0128}}</ref> By the 1920s, British scientist [[Lewis Fry Richardson]]'s interest in weather prediction led him to propose [[human computer]]s and [[numerical analysis]] to model the weather; to this day, the most powerful computers on [[Earth]] are needed to adequately model its weather using the [[Navier–Stokes equations]].{{sfn|Hunt|1998}}
@@ Line 62: / Line 77: @@
 ==First proposed general-purpose computing device==
 {{Main|Analytical Engine}}
 [[File:Difference engine plate 1853.jpg|thumb|A portion of [[Charles Babbage|Babbage]]'s [[Difference Engine]] ]][[File:AnalyticalMachine Babbage London.jpg|thumb|left|Trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, built by Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum, London]]
 The [[Industrial Revolution]] (late 18th to early 19th century) had a significant impact on the evolution of computing hardware, as the era's rapid advancements in machinery and manufacturing laid the groundwork for mechanized and automated computing. Industrial needs for precise, large-scale calculations—especially in fields such as navigation, engineering, and finance—prompted innovations in both design and function, setting the stage for devices like [[Charles Babbage|Charles Babbage's]] [[difference engine]] (1822).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Babbage |first=Charles |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139103671 |title=Passages from the Life of a Philosopher |date=2011-10-12 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139103671 |isbn=978-1-108-03788-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Babbage |first=Charles |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511696374 |title=On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures |date=2010-03-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511696374 |isbn=978-1-108-00910-2}}</ref> This mechanical device was intended to automate the calculation of polynomial functions and represented one of the earliest applications of computational logic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hutton |first=D.M. |date=2002-08-01 |title=The Difference Engine: Charles Babbage and the Quest to Build the First Computer |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/k.2002.06731fae.009 |journal=Kybernetes |volume=31 |issue=6 |doi=10.1108/k.2002.06731fae.009 |issn=0368-492X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
@@ Line 67: / Line 83: @@
 Babbage, often regarded as the "father of the computer," envisioned a fully mechanical system of gears and wheels, powered by steam, capable of handling complex calculations that previously required intensive manual labor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tropp |first=Henry S. |date=December 1975 |title=''The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers''. Brian Randell |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/351520 |journal=Isis |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=572–573 |doi=10.1086/351520 |issn=0021-1753|url-access=subscription }}</ref> His difference engine, designed to aid navigational calculations, ultimately led him to conceive the [[analytical engine]] in 1833.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=W. |first1=J. W. |last2=Hyman |first2=Anthony |date=April 1986 |title=Charles Babbage, Pioneer of the Computer. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2008013 |journal=Mathematics of Computation |volume=46 |issue=174 |pages=759 |doi=10.2307/2008013 |jstor=2008013 |issn=0025-5718|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This concept, far more advanced than his difference engine, included an [[arithmetic logic unit]], control flow through conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Campbell-Kelly |first1=Martin |last2=Aspray |first2=William |last3=Ensmenger |first3=Nathan |last4=Yost |first4=Jeffrey R. |date=2018-04-20 |title=Computer |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429495373 |doi=10.4324/9780429495373|isbn=978-0-429-49537-3 }}</ref> Babbage's plans made his analytical engine the first general-purpose design that could be described as [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]] in modern terms.<ref>{{Citation |last=Turing |first=Alan |title=Computing Machinery and Intelligence (1950) |date=2004-09-09 |work=The Essential Turing |pages=433–464 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198250791.003.0017 |access-date=2024-10-30 |publisher=Oxford University PressOxford |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198250791.003.0017 |isbn=978-0-19-825079-1|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=Martin |date=2018-02-28 |title=the Universal Computer |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315144726 |doi=10.1201/9781315144726|isbn=978-1-315-14472-6 }}</ref>
-The analytical engine was programmed using [[Punched card input/output|punched cards]], a method adapted from the [[Jacquard machine|Jacquard loom]] invented by [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]] in 1804, which controlled textile patterns with a sequence of punched cards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=d'Ucel |first1=Jeanne |last2=Dib |first2=Mohammed |date=1958 |title=Le métier à tisser |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40098349 |journal=Books Abroad |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=278 |doi=10.2307/40098349 |jstor=40098349 |issn=0006-7431|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These cards became foundational in later computing systems as well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heide |first=Lars |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/book.3454 |title=Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion, 1880–1945 |date=2009 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |doi=10.1353/book.3454 |isbn=978-0-8018-9143-4}}</ref> Babbage's machine would have featured multiple output devices, including a printer, a curve plotter, and even a bell, demonstrating his ambition for versatile computational applications beyond simple arithmetic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bromley |first=A.G. |date=1998 |title=Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1838 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/85.728228 |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=29–45 |doi=10.1109/85.728228 |issn=1058-6180|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+The analytical engine was programmed using [[Punched card input/output|punched cards]], a method adapted from the [[Jacquard machine|Jacquard loom]] invented by [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]] in 1804, which controlled textile patterns with a sequence of punched cards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=d'Ucel |first1=Jeanne |last2=Dib |first2=Mohammed |date=1958 |title=Le métier à tisser |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40098349 |journal=Books Abroad |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=278 |doi=10.2307/40098349 |jstor=40098349 |issn=0006-7431|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These cards became foundational in later computing systems as well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heide |first=Lars |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/book.3454 |title=Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion, 1880–1945 |date=2009 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |doi=10.1353/book.3454 |isbn=978-0-8018-9143-4}}</ref> Babbage's machine would have featured multiple output devices, including a printer, a curve plotter, and even a bell, demonstrating his ambition for versatile computational applications beyond simple arithmetic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bromley |first=A.G. |date=1998 |title=Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1838 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/85.728228 |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=29–45 |doi=10.1109/85.728228 |bibcode=1998IAHC...20d..29B |issn=1058-6180|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 [[Ada Lovelace]] expanded on Babbage's vision by conceptualizing algorithms that could be executed by his machine.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toole |first=Betty Alexandra |date=March 1991 |title=Ada, an analyst and a metaphysician |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/122028.122031 |journal=ACM SIGAda Ada Letters |volume=XI |issue=2 |pages=60–71 |doi=10.1145/122028.122031 |issn=1094-3641|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Her notes on the analytical engine, written in the 1840s, are now recognized as the earliest examples of computer programming.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Emily |last2=De Roure |first2=David |chapter=Turning numbers into notes |date=2015 |title=Ada Lovelace Symposium 2015- Celebrating 200 Years of a Computer Visionary on - Ada Lovelace Symposium '15 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2867731.2867746 |location=New York, New York, USA |publisher=ACM Press |pages=13 |doi=10.1145/2867731.2867746|isbn=978-1-4503-4150-9 }}</ref> Lovelace saw potential in computers to go beyond numerical calculations, predicting that they might one day generate complex musical compositions or perform tasks like language processing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haugtvedt |first1=Erica |last2=Abata |first2=Duane |title=Ada Lovelace: First Computer Programmer and Hacker? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18260/1-2--36646 |journal=2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access Proceedings |date=2021 |publisher=ASEE Conferences |doi=10.18260/1-2--36646}}</ref>
-Though Babbage's designs were never fully realized due to technical and financial challenges, they influenced a range of subsequent developments in computing hardware. Notably, in the 1890s, [[Herman Hollerith]] adapted the idea of punched cards for automated data processing, which was utilized in the U.S. Census and sped up data tabulation significantly, bridging industrial machinery with data processing.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Blodgett |first=John H. |title=Herman Hollerith, data processing pioneer |date=1968 |publisher=Drexel University Libraries |doi=10.17918/00004750 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17918/00004750|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+Although Babbage's designs were never fully realized due to technical and financial challenges, they influenced a range of subsequent developments in computing hardware. Notably, in the 1890s, [[Herman Hollerith]] adapted the idea of punched cards for automated data processing, which was utilized in the U.S. Census and sped up data tabulation significantly, bridging industrial machinery with data processing.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Blodgett |first=John H. |title=Herman Hollerith, data processing pioneer |date=1968 |publisher=Drexel University Libraries |doi=10.17918/00004750 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17918/00004750|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 The Industrial Revolution's advancements in mechanical systems demonstrated the potential for machines to conduct complex calculations, influencing engineers like [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] and [[Vannevar Bush]] in the early 20th century. Torres Quevedo designed an electromechanical machine with floating-point arithmetic,<ref>{{Citation |last=Torres y Quevedo |first=Leonardo |title=Essays on Automatics |date=1982 |work=The Origins of Digital Computers |pages=89–107 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-61812-3_6 |access-date=2024-10-30 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-61812-3_6 |isbn=978-3-642-61814-7|url-access=subscription }}</ref> while Bush's later work explored electronic digital computing.<ref>{{Citation |title=6 Vannevar Bush, from "As We May Think" (1945) |date=2021 |work=Information |publisher=Columbia University Press |doi=10.7312/hayo18620-032 |isbn=978-0-231-54654-6|doi-access=free }}</ref> By the mid-20th century, these innovations paved the way for the first fully electronic computers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haigh |first1=Thomas |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11436.001.0001 |title=A New History of Modern Computing |last2=Ceruzzi |first2=Paul E. |date=2021-09-14 |publisher=The MIT Press |doi=10.7551/mitpress/11436.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-262-36648-9}}</ref>
@@ Line 77: / Line 93: @@
 ==Analog computers==
 {{Main|Analog computer}}
 {{Further|Mechanical computer}}
 [[File:099-tpm3-sk.jpg|thumb|[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Sir William Thomson]]'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81]]
@@ Line 94: / Line 111: @@
 The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the [[differential analyzer]],{{sfn|Coriolis|1836|pp=5–9}} built by H. L. Hazen and [[Vannevar Bush]] at [[MIT]] starting in 1927, which built on the mechanical integrators of [[James Thomson (engineer)|James Thomson]] and the [[torque amplifier]]s invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious; the most powerful was constructed at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]'s [[Moore School of Electrical Engineering]], where the [[ENIAC]] was built.
-A fully electronic analog computer was built by [[Helmut Hölzer]] in 1942 at [[Peenemünde Army Research Center]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025 |title=Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer |journal= IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=227–240 |year=1985 |last1=Tomayko |first1=James E. |s2cid=15986944}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6BfBgAAQBAJ&q=Hoelzer%201942&pg=PT138|title=The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemunde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era|last=Neufeld|first=Michael J.|date=2013-09-10|publisher=Smithsonian Institution |isbn=9781588344663|page=138|access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181641/https://books.google.com/books?id=L6BfBgAAQBAJ&q=Hoelzer%201942&pg=PT138|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1DpBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|title=Analog Computing |last=Ulmann|first=Bernd|date=2013-07-22 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=9783486755183|page=38 |access-date=2021-12-27 |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181642/https://books.google.com/books?id=y1DpBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|url-status=live}}</ref>
+A fully electronic analog computer was built by [[Helmut Hölzer]] in 1942 at [[Peenemünde Army Research Center]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025 |title=Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer |journal= IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=227–240 |year=1985 |last1=Tomayko |first1=James E. |bibcode=1985IAHC....7c.227T |s2cid=15986944}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6BfBgAAQBAJ&q=Hoelzer%201942&pg=PT138|title=The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemunde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era|last=Neufeld|first=Michael J.|date=2013-09-10|publisher=Smithsonian Institution |isbn=9781588344663|page=138|access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181641/https://books.google.com/books?id=L6BfBgAAQBAJ&q=Hoelzer%201942&pg=PT138|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1DpBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|title=Analog Computing |last=Ulmann|first=Bernd|date=2013-07-22 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=9783486755183|page=38 |access-date=2021-12-27 |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181642/https://books.google.com/books?id=y1DpBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|url-status=live}}</ref>
 By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but [[hybrid computer|hybrid analog computers]], controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications.
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 ===Electromechanical computers===
 {{Further|Mechanical computer#Electro-mechanical computers}}
-The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were built with electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These mechanical components had a low operating speed due to their mechanical nature and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric components, originally using [[vacuum tube]]s and later [[transistor]]s.
+The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These mechanical components had a low operating speed due to their mechanical nature and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric components, originally using [[vacuum tube]]s and later [[transistor]]s.
 The [[Z2 (computer)|Z2]] was one of the earliest examples of an electric operated digital [[computer]] built with electromechanical relays and was created by civil engineer [[Konrad Zuse]] in 1940 in Germany. It was an improvement on his earlier, mechanical [[Z1 (computer)|Z1]]; although it used the same mechanical [[computer memory|memory]], it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical [[relay]] circuits.<ref name="Part 4 Zuse">{{cite web |url=https://www.epemag.com/zuse/part4a.htm|title=Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers|last=Zuse|first=Horst |work=The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse|publisher=EPE Online |access-date=2008-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601210541/http://www.epemag.com/zuse/part4a.htm |archive-date = 2008-06-01}}</ref>
@@ Line 113: / Line 130: @@
 [[File:Z3 Deutsches Museum.JPG|thumb|left|Replica of [[Konrad Zuse|Zuse]]'s [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer]]
-In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]],<ref name="Part 4 Zuse"/> the world's first working [[electromechanical]] [[Computer programming|programmable]], fully automatic digital computer.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html |date=20 April 1994 |access-date=2017-02-16 |archive-date=2016-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104051054/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Z3 was built with 2000 [[relay]]s, implementing a 22-[[bit]] [[Word (computer architecture)|word length]] that operated at a [[clock rate|clock frequency]] of about 5–10&nbsp;[[Hertz|Hz]].{{sfn|Zuse|1993|p=55}} Program code and data were stored on punched [[celluloid|film]]. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as [[floating-point arithmetic|floating-point numbers]]. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in [[Charles Babbage]]'s earlier design) by the simpler [[binary number|binary]] system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.crash-it.com/crash/index.php?page=73 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318184915/http://www.crash-it.com/crash/index.php?page=73 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-03-18 |title=Zuse |work=Crash! The Story of IT}}</ref> Despite lacking explicit conditional execution, the Z3 was proven to have been a theoretically [[Turing machine|Turing-complete machine]] in 1998 by [[Raúl Rojas]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rojas|first=Raúl|title=How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer |date=1998 |citeseerx=10.1.1.37.665}}</ref> In two 1936 [[patent]] applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the [[von Neumann architecture]], first implemented in 1948 in America in the [[Mechanical computer#Electro-mechanical computers|electromechanical]] [[IBM SSEC]] and in Britain in the fully electronic [[Manchester Baby]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Electronic Digital Computers |journal=Nature |last1=Williams |first1=F. C. |last2=Kilburn |first2=T. |date=25 September 1948 |volume=162 |issue=4117 |page=487 |bibcode=1948Natur.162..487W |doi=10.1038/162487a0 |s2cid=4110351 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]],<ref name="Part 4 Zuse"/> the world's first working [[electromechanical]] [[Computer programming|programmable]], fully automatic digital computer.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html |date=20 April 1994 |access-date=2017-02-16 |archive-date=2016-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104051054/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Z3 was built with 2000 [[relay]]s, implementing a 22-[[bit]] [[Word (computer architecture)|word length]] that operated at a [[clock rate|clock frequency]] of about 5–10&nbsp;[[Hertz|Hz]].{{sfn|Zuse|1993|p=55}} Program code and data were stored on punched [[celluloid|film]]. It was similar to modern machines in several respects, pioneering numerous advances such as [[floating-point arithmetic|floating-point numbers]]. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in [[Charles Babbage]]'s earlier design) by the simpler [[binary number|binary]] system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.crash-it.com/crash/index.php?page=73 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318184915/http://www.crash-it.com/crash/index.php?page=73 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-03-18 |title=Zuse |work=Crash! The Story of IT}}</ref> Despite lacking explicit conditional execution, the Z3 was proven to have been a theoretically [[Turing machine|Turing-complete machine]] in 1998 by [[Raúl Rojas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rojas|first=Raúl|title=How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |date=1998 |volume=20 |issue=3 |page=51 |doi=10.1109/85.707574 |bibcode=1998IAHC...20c..51R |citeseerx=10.1.1.37.665}}</ref> In two 1936 [[patent]] applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the [[von Neumann architecture]], first implemented in 1948 in America in the [[Mechanical computer#Electro-mechanical computers|electromechanical]] [[IBM SSEC]] and in Britain in the fully electronic [[Manchester Baby]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Electronic Digital Computers |journal=Nature |last1=Williams |first1=F. C. |last2=Kilburn |first2=T. |date=25 September 1948 |volume=162 |issue=4117 |page=487 |bibcode=1948Natur.162..487W |doi=10.1038/162487a0 |s2cid=4110351 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents.
@@ Line 124: / Line 141: @@
 The mathematical basis of digital computing is [[Boolean algebra]], developed by the British mathematician [[George Boole]] in his work ''[[The Laws of Thought]]'', published in 1854. His Boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by [[William Jevons]] and [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], and was first presented systematically by [[Ernst Schröder (mathematician)|Ernst Schröder]] and [[A. N. Whitehead]].<ref name="DunnHardegree2001">{{cite book|first1=J. Michael|last1=Dunn|first2=Gary M.|last2=Hardegree|year=2001 |title=Algebraic methods in philosophical logic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AokWhbILUIC&pg=PA2 |publisher=Oxford University Press US|isbn=978-0-19-853192-0|page=2|access-date=2016-06-04 |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181643/https://books.google.com/books?id=-AokWhbILUIC&pg=PA2|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1879 Gottlob Frege developed the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations.<ref>{{cite book|title=Begriffsschrift: eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens|author=Arthur Gottlob Frege}}</ref>
-In the 1930s and working independently, American [[electronic engineer]] [[Claude Shannon]] and Soviet [[logician]] [[Victor Shestakov]] both showed a [[one-to-one correspondence]] between the concepts of [[Boolean logic]] and certain electrical circuits, now called [[logic gate]]s, which are now ubiquitous in digital computers.{{sfn|Shannon|1938}} They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the [[expression (mathematics)|expression]]s of [[Boolean algebra (logic)|Boolean algebra]].{{sfn|Shannon|1940}} This thesis essentially founded practical [[digital circuit]] design. In addition Shannon's paper gives a correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder.{{sfn|Shannon|1938|pp=494–495|ps=.{{verify source|date=August 2023|reason=Neither Shannon (1938) of Shannon (1940) include pages 494–495.}}}}
+In the 1930s and working independently, American [[electronic engineer]] [[Claude Shannon]] and Soviet [[logician]] [[Victor Shestakov]] both showed a [[one-to-one correspondence]] between the concepts of [[Boolean logic]] and certain electrical circuits, now called [[logic gate]]s, which are now ubiquitous in digital computers.{{sfn|Shannon|1938}} They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the [[expression (mathematics)|expression]]s of [[Boolean algebra]].{{sfn|Shannon|1940}} This thesis essentially founded practical [[digital circuit]] design. In addition Shannon's paper gives a correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder.{{sfn|Shannon|1938|pp=494–495|ps=.{{verify source|date=August 2023|reason=Neither Shannon (1938) of Shannon (1940) include pages 494–495.}}}}
 ===Electronic data processing===
@@ Line 138: / Line 155: @@
 ===The electronic programmable computer===
 {{Main|Colossus computer|ENIAC}}
 [[File:Colossus.jpg|thumb|Colossus was the first [[electronics|electronic]] [[Digital electronics|digital]] [[Computer programming|programmable]] computing device, and was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It remained unknown, as a military secret, well into the 1970s.]]
 During World War II, British codebreakers at [[Bletchley Park]], {{convert|40|mi|km}} north of London, achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted enemy military communications. The German encryption machine, [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]], was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical [[bombe]]s.{{sfn|Welchman|1984|pp=138–145, 295–309}} They ruled out possible Enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically. Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and the few remaining could be tested by hand.
-The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma. The [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] machine was used for high-level Army communications, code-named "Tunny" by the British. The first intercepts of Lorenz messages began in 1941. As part of an attack on Tunny, [[Max Newman]] and his colleagues developed the [[Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine)|Heath Robinson]], a fixed-function machine to aid in code breaking.{{sfn|Copeland|2006|p=182}} [[Tommy Flowers]], a senior engineer at the [[Post Office Research Station]]{{sfn|Randell|1980|p=9}} was recommended to Max Newman by Alan Turing{{sfn|Budiansky|2000|p=314}} and spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the more flexible [[Colossus computer]] (which superseded the [[Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine)|Heath Robinson]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus |newspaper=BBC News |date=2 February 2010 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/8492762.stm |access-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=2020-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308163851/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8492762.stm}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Fensom|first=Jim|title=Harry Fensom obituary |newspaper=The Guardian |date=8 November 2010 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary|access-date=17 October 2012|archive-date=2013-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917220225/http://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary |url-status=live}}</ref> After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944<ref>{{cite web |last=Sale |first=Tony |title=Colossus - The Rebuild Story |publisher=The National Museum of Computing |url=https://www.tnmoc.org/colossus-rebuild-story |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418230306/http://www.tnmoc.org/colossus-rebuild-story |archive-date=2015-04-18 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and attacked its first message on 5 February.{{sfn|Copeland|2006|p=75}} By the time Germany surrendered in May 1945, there were ten [[Colossus computer|Colossi]] working at Bletchley Park.{{sfn|Copeland|2006|p=2}}
+The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma. The [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] machine was used for high-level Army communications, code-named "Tunny" by the British. The first intercepts of Lorenz messages began in 1941. As part of an attack on Tunny, [[Max Newman]] and his colleagues developed the [[Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine)|Heath Robinson]], a fixed-function machine to aid in code breaking.{{sfn|Copeland|2006|p=182}} [[Tommy Flowers]], a senior engineer at the [[Post Office Research Station]]{{sfn|Randell|1980|p=9}} was recommended to Max Newman by Alan Turing{{sfn|Budiansky|2000|p=314}} and spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the more flexible [[Colossus computer]] (which superseded the [[Heath Robinson (codebreaking machine)|Heath Robinson]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus |newspaper=BBC News |date=2 February 2010 |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8492762.stm |access-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=2020-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308163851/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8492762.stm}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Fensom|first=Jim|title=Harry Fensom obituary |newspaper=The Guardian |date=8 November 2010 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary|access-date=17 October 2012|archive-date=2013-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917220225/http://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary |url-status=live}}</ref> After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944<ref>{{cite web |last=Sale |first=Tony |title=Colossus - The Rebuild Story |publisher=The National Museum of Computing |url=https://www.tnmoc.org/colossus-rebuild-story |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418230306/http://www.tnmoc.org/colossus-rebuild-story |archive-date=2015-04-18 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and attacked its first message on 5 February.{{sfn|Copeland|2006|p=75}} By the time Germany surrendered in May 1945, there were ten [[Colossus computer|Colossi]] working at Bletchley Park.{{sfn|Copeland|2006|p=2}}
 [[File:Wartime photo of Colossus 10.png|thumb|left|Wartime photo of Colossus No. 10]]
@@ Line 157: / Line 175: @@
 ==Stored-program computer==
 {{Main|Stored-program computer}}
 {{Further|List of vacuum-tube computers}}
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 Early computing machines executed the set sequence of steps, known as a '[[computer program|program]]', that could be altered by changing electrical connections using switches or a [[patch panel]] (or [[plugboard]]). However, this process of 'reprogramming' was often difficult and time-consuming, requiring engineers to create flowcharts and physically re-wire the machines.{{sfn|Copeland|2006|p=104}} Stored-program computers, by contrast, were designed to store a set of instructions (a [[computer program|program]]), in memory – typically the same memory as stored data.
-[[ENIAC]] inventors [[John Mauchly]] and [[J. Presper Eckert]] proposed, in August 1944, the construction of a machine called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer ([[EDVAC]]) and design work for it commenced at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]'s [[Moore School of Electrical Engineering]], before the ENIAC was fully operational.  The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed [[Delay-line memory|serial-access memory]].<ref name=Wilkes>{{cite book | last=Wilkes | first=M. V. | author-link=Maurice Vincent Wilkes | title=Automatic Digital Computers | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | year=1956 | location=New York | pages=305 pages | id=QA76.W5 1956 }}</ref> However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.
+[[ENIAC]] inventors [[John Mauchly]] and [[J. Presper Eckert]] proposed, in August 1944, the construction of a machine called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer ([[EDVAC]]) and design work for it commenced at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]'s [[Moore School of Electrical Engineering]], before the ENIAC was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed [[Delay-line memory|serial-access memory]].<ref name=Wilkes>{{cite book | last=Wilkes | first=M. V. | author-link=Maurice Vincent Wilkes | title=Automatic Digital Computers | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | year=1956 | location=New York | pages=305 pages | id=QA76.W5 1956 }}</ref> However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.
-In 1945, von Neumann visited the Moore School and wrote notes on what he saw, which he sent to the project. The U.S. Army liaison there had them typed and  circulated as the ''[[First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC]]''. The draft did not mention Eckert and Mauchly and, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas,<ref name="stanf"/> the computer architecture it outlined became known as the '[[von Neumann architecture]]'.
+In 1945, von Neumann visited the Moore School and wrote notes on what he saw, which he sent to the project. The U.S. Army liaison there had them typed and circulated as the ''[[First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC]]''. The draft did not mention Eckert and Mauchly and, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas,<ref name="stanf"/> the computer architecture it outlined became known as the '[[von Neumann architecture]]'.
 In 1945, Turing joined the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|UK National Physical Laboratory]] and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His late-1945 report 'Proposed Electronic Calculator' was the first reasonably detailed specification for such a device. Turing presented a more detailed paper to the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]] (NPL) Executive Committee in March 1946, giving the first substantially complete design of a [[stored-program computer]], a device that was called the [[Automatic Computing Engine]] (ACE).
@@ Line 175: / Line 194: @@
 ===Manchester Baby===
 {{Main|Manchester Baby}}
 [[File:SSEM Manchester museum close up.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Three tall racks containing electronic circuit boards|A section of the rebuilt [[Manchester Baby]], the first electronic stored-program computer]]
 The [[Manchester Baby]] (Small Scale Experimental Machine, SSEM) was the world's first electronic [[stored-program computer]]. It was built at the [[Victoria University of Manchester]] by [[Frederic Calland Williams|Frederic C. Williams]], [[Tom Kilburn]] and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21&nbsp;June 1948.<ref>{{citation |last=Enticknap |first=Nicholas |title=Computing's Golden Jubilee |journal=Resurrection |issue=20 |publisher=The Computer Conservation Society |date=Summer 1998 |url=https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res20.htm#d |issn=0958-7403 |access-date=19 April 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109142655/http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res20.htm#d |archive-date=9 January 2012}}</ref>
-The machine was not intended to be a practical computer but was instead designed as a [[testbed]] for the [[Williams tube]], the first [[random-access memory|random-access]] digital storage device.<ref>{{citation |title=Early computers at Manchester University |journal=Resurrection |volume=1 |issue=4 |publisher=The Computer Conservation Society |date=Summer 1992 |url=https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res04.htm#g |issn=0958-7403 |access-date=7 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828010743/http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res04.htm#g |archive-date=28 August 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Invented by [[Frederic Calland Williams|Freddie Williams]] and [[Tom Kilburn]]<ref>{{cite web |website=Computer 50 |url=https://www.computer50.org/mark1/notes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606122154/http://www.computer50.org/mark1/notes.html |archive-date=2013-06-06 |title=Why Williams-Kilburn Tube is a Better Name for the Williams Tube}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Kilburn |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Kilburn |title=From Cathode Ray Tube to Ferranti Mark I |journal=Resurrection |publisher=The Computer Conservation Society |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=1990 |url=https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res02.htm#e |issn=0958-7403 |access-date=15 March 2012 |archive-date=2020-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627165410/http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res02.htm#e |url-status=live }}</ref> at the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was a [[cathode-ray tube]] that used an effect called [[secondary emission]] to temporarily store electronic [[binary data]], and was used successfully in several early computers.
+The machine was not intended to be a practical computer, but was instead designed as a [[testbed]] for the [[Williams tube]], the first [[random-access memory|random-access]] digital storage device.<ref>{{citation |title=Early computers at Manchester University |journal=Resurrection |volume=1 |issue=4 |publisher=The Computer Conservation Society |date=Summer 1992 |url=https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res04.htm#g |issn=0958-7403 |access-date=7 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828010743/http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res04.htm#g |archive-date=28 August 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Invented by [[Frederic Calland Williams|Freddie Williams]] and [[Tom Kilburn]]<ref>{{cite web |website=Computer 50 |url=https://www.computer50.org/mark1/notes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606122154/http://www.computer50.org/mark1/notes.html |archive-date=2013-06-06 |title=Why Williams-Kilburn Tube is a Better Name for the Williams Tube}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Kilburn |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Kilburn |title=From Cathode Ray Tube to Ferranti Mark I |journal=Resurrection |publisher=The Computer Conservation Society |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=1990 |url=https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res02.htm#e |issn=0958-7403 |access-date=15 March 2012 |archive-date=2020-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627165410/http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/CCS/res/res02.htm#e |url-status=live }}</ref> at the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was a [[cathode-ray tube]] that used an effect called [[secondary emission]] to temporarily store electronic [[binary data]], and was used successfully in several early computers.
 Described as small and primitive in a 1998 retrospective, the Baby was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.<ref name=EarlyComputers /> As soon as it had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop the design into a more usable computer, the [[Manchester Mark 1]]. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the [[Ferranti Mark 1]], the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.<ref name=NapperMK1>{{citation |last=Napper |first=R. B. E. |title=Introduction to the Mark 1 |website=Computer 50 |url=https://www.computer50.org/mark1/mark1intro.html |publisher=The University of Manchester |access-date=4 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081026080604/http://www.computer50.org/mark1/mark1intro.html |archive-date=26 October 2008 }}</ref>
-The Baby had a [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] [[word (data type)|word]] length and a [[computer memory|memory]] of 32&nbsp;words. As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations implemented in [[Computer hardware|hardware]] were [[subtraction]] and [[negation]]; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software. The first of three programs written for the machine found the highest [[proper divisor]] of 2<sup>18</sup> (262,144), a calculation that was known would take a long time to run—and so prove the computer's reliability—by testing every integer from 2<sup>18</sup>&nbsp;−&nbsp;1 downwards, as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The program consisted of 17&nbsp;instructions and ran for 52&nbsp;minutes before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after the Baby had performed 3.5&nbsp;million operations (for an effective CPU speed of 1.1 [[instructions per second|kIPS]]). The successive approximations to the answer were displayed as a pattern of dots on the output [[cathode-ray tube|CRT]] which mirrored the pattern held on the Williams tube used for storage.
+The Baby had a [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] [[word (data type)|word]] length and a [[computer memory|memory]] of 32&nbsp;words. As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations implemented in [[Computer hardware|hardware]] were [[subtraction]] and [[negation]]; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software. The first of three programs written for the machine found the highest [[proper divisor]] of 2<sup>18</sup> (262,144), a calculation that was known would take a long time to run—and so prove the computer's reliability—by testing every integer from 2<sup>18</sup>&nbsp;−&nbsp;1 downwards, as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The program consisted of 17&nbsp;instructions and ran for 52&nbsp;minutes before producing the correct answer of 131,072, after the Baby had performed 3.5&nbsp;million operations (for an effective CPU speed of 1.1 [[instructions per second|kIPS]]). The successive approximations to the answer were displayed as a pattern of dots on the output [[cathode-ray tube|CRT]] which mirrored the pattern held on the Williams tube used for storage.
 ===Manchester Mark 1===
@@ Line 193: / Line 213: @@
 The other contender for being the first recognizably modern digital stored-program computer<ref>{{cite web |first=Mark |last=Ward |date=13 January 2011 |work=BBC News |title=Pioneering Edsac computer to be built at Bletchley Park |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-12181153 |access-date=2018-06-21 |archive-date=2018-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620162103/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-12181153 |url-status=live }}</ref> was the [[EDSAC]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilkes |first1=W. V. |author-link=Maurice Wilkes |last2=Renwick |first2=W. |title=The EDSAC (Electronic delay storage automatic calculator) |journal=Math. Comp. |year=1950 |volume=4 |issue=30 |pages=61–65 |doi=10.1090/s0025-5718-1950-0037589-7|doi-access=free }}</ref> designed and constructed by [[Maurice Wilkes]] and his team at the [[University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory]] in [[England]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1949. The machine was inspired by [[John von Neumann]]'s seminal ''[[First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC]]'' and was one of the first usefully operational electronic digital [[Von Neumann architecture|stored-program]] computers.{{efn|The Manchester Baby predated EDSAC as a [[stored-program computer]], but was built as a test bed for the [[Williams tube]] and not as a machine for practical use.<ref>{{cite web |title=A brief informal history of the Computer Laboratory |work=EDSAC 99 |url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/events/EDSAC99/history.html |access-date=2020-12-01 |publisher=University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506195233/http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/events/EDSAC99/history.html |archive-date=2013-05-06 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the Manchester Mark 1 of 1949 (not to be confused with the 1948 prototype, the Baby) was available for university research in April 1949 despite being still under development.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Manchester Mark 1 |website=Computer 50 |url=https://www.computer50.org/mark1/MM1.html |access-date=2014-01-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209155638/http://www.computer50.org/mark1/MM1.html |archive-date=2014-02-09}}</ref>}}
-EDSAC ran its first programs on 6&nbsp;May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares<ref>{{cite journal|title=Pioneer computer to be rebuilt|journal=Cam|volume=62|date=2011|page=5}} To be precise, EDSAC's first program printed a list of the [[square number|square]]s of the [[integer (computer science)|integer]]s from 0 to 99 inclusive.</ref> and a list of [[prime number]]s.The EDSAC also served as the basis for the first commercially applied computer, the [[LEO (computer)|LEO I]], used by food manufacturing company [[J. Lyons and Co.|J. Lyons & Co. Ltd.]]  EDSAC 1 was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC 2 which stayed in use until 1965.<ref>{{citation |title=EDSAC 99: 15–16 April 1999 |publisher=University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory |date=1999-05-06 |pages=68–69 |url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/events/EDSAC99/booklet.pdf |access-date=2013-06-29 |archive-date=2020-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926061030/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/events/EDSAC99/booklet.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
+EDSAC ran its first programs on 6&nbsp;May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares<ref>{{cite journal|title=Pioneer computer to be rebuilt|journal=Cam|volume=62|date=2011|page=5}} To be precise, EDSAC's first program printed a list of the [[square number|square]]s of the [[integer (computer science)|integer]]s from 0 to 99 inclusive.</ref> and a list of [[prime number]]s.The EDSAC also served as the basis for the first commercially applied computer, the [[LEO (computer)|LEO I]], used by food manufacturing company [[J. Lyons and Co.|J. Lyons & Co. Ltd.]] EDSAC 1 was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC 2 which stayed in use until 1965.<ref>{{citation |title=EDSAC 99: 15–16 April 1999 |publisher=University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory |date=1999-05-06 |pages=68–69 |url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/events/EDSAC99/booklet.pdf |access-date=2013-06-29 |archive-date=2020-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926061030/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/events/EDSAC99/booklet.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
 {{blockquote|The "brain" [computer] may one day come down to our level [of the common people] and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far.|British newspaper ''The Star'' in a June 1949 news article about the [[EDSAC]] computer, long before the era of the personal computers.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Martin |last=Campbell-Kelly |date=July 2001 |title=Tutorial Guide to the EDSAC Simulator |publisher=Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick |url=https://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/~edsac/Software/EdsacTG.pdf |access-date=2016-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222132057/http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/~edsac/Software/EdsacTG.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-22 |url-status=dead }}<br/>{{*}}{{Cite web |date=March 2018 |title=Tutorial Guide to the EDSAC Simulator |publisher=The EDSAC Replica Project, The National Museum of Computing |url=https://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/~edsac/Software/EdsacTG.pdf |access-date=2020-12-02 |archive-date=2015-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222132057/http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/~edsac/Software/EdsacTG.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
@@ Line 199: / Line 219: @@
 ===EDVAC===
 [[File:Edvac.jpg|right|thumb|upright|EDVAC]]
-[[ENIAC]] inventors [[John Mauchly]] and [[J. Presper Eckert]] proposed the [[EDVAC]]'s construction in August 1944, and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]'s [[Moore School of Electrical Engineering]], before the [[ENIAC]] was fully operational.  The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed [[Delay-line memory|serial-access memory]].<ref name="Wilkes" /> However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.
+[[ENIAC]] inventors [[John Mauchly]] and [[J. Presper Eckert]] proposed the [[EDVAC]]'s construction in August 1944, and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]'s [[Moore School of Electrical Engineering]], before the [[ENIAC]] was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed [[Delay-line memory|serial-access memory]].<ref name="Wilkes" /> However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.
 It was finally delivered to the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]]'s [[Ballistics Research Laboratory]] at the [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]] in August 1949, but due to a number of problems, the computer only began operation in 1951, and then only on a limited basis.
@@ Line 210: / Line 230: @@
 In June 1951, the [[UNIVAC I]] (Universal Automatic Computer) was delivered to the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]]. Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than {{US$|1 million}} each (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|1000000|1951|r=-4}}|0}} as of {{inflation/year|US}}).{{Inflation-fn|US}} UNIVAC was the first "mass-produced" computer. It used 5,200 vacuum tubes and consumed {{val|125|ul=kW}} of power. Its primary storage was [[Sequential access|serial-access]] mercury delay lines capable of storing 1,000 words of 11 decimal digits plus sign (72-bit words).
-In 1952, [[Groupe Bull|Compagnie des Machines Bull]] released the [[Bull Gamma 3|Gamma 3]] computer, which became a large success in Europe, eventually selling more than 1,200 units, and the first computer produced in more than 1,000 units.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Leclerc |first=Bruno |date=January 1990 |title=From Gamma 2 to Gamma E.T.: The Birth of Electronic Computing at Bull |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=5–22 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1990.10010 |s2cid=15227017 |issn=0164-1239}}</ref> The Gamma 3 had innovative features for its time including a dual-mode, software switchable, BCD and binary ALU, as well as a hardwired floating-point library for scientific computing.<ref name=":1" /> In its E.T configuration, the Gamma 3 drum memory could fit about 50,000 instructions for a capacity of 16,384 words (around 100&nbsp;kB), a large amount for the time.<ref name=":1" />
+In 1952, [[Groupe Bull|Compagnie des Machines Bull]] released the [[Bull Gamma 3|Gamma 3]] computer, which became a large success in Europe, eventually selling more than 1,200 units, and the first computer produced in more than 1,000 units.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Leclerc |first=Bruno |date=January 1990 |title=From Gamma 2 to Gamma E.T.: The Birth of Electronic Computing at Bull |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=5–22 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1990.10010 |bibcode=1990IAHC...12a...5L |s2cid=15227017 |issn=0164-1239}}</ref> The Gamma 3 had innovative features for its time including a dual-mode, software switchable, BCD and binary ALU, as well as a hardwired floating-point library for scientific computing.<ref name=":1" /> In its E.T configuration, the Gamma 3 drum memory could fit about 50,000 instructions for a capacity of 16,384 words (around 100&nbsp;kB), a large amount for the time.<ref name=":1" />
 [[File:IBM-650-panel.jpg|thumb|right|Front panel of the [[IBM 650]] ]]
 Compared to the UNIVAC, IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in 1954 that proved very popular.{{efn|For example, Kara Platoni's article on [[Donald Knuth]] stated that "there was something special about the IBM 650".<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Kara |last=Platoni |title=Love at First Byte |magazine=Stanford Magazine |url=https://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2006/mayjun/features/knuth.html |date=May–June 2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060925022700/http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2006/mayjun/features/knuth.html |archive-date=2006-09-25 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}<ref>
-V. M. Wolontis (18 August 1955) "A Complete Floating-Decimal Interpretive System for the I.B.M. 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator—Case 20878" Bell Telephone Laboratories Technical Memorandum MM-114-37, Reported in IBM Technical Newsletter No. 11, March 1956, as referenced in {{cite journal |title=Wolontis-Bell Interpreter |publisher=IEEE |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=January–March 1986 |pages=74–76 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1986.10008 |s2cid=36692260}}
+V. M. Wolontis (18 August 1955) "A Complete Floating-Decimal Interpretive System for the I.B.M. 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator—Case 20878" Bell Telephone Laboratories Technical Memorandum MM-114-37, Reported in IBM Technical Newsletter No. 11, March 1956, as referenced in {{cite journal |title=Wolontis-Bell Interpreter |publisher=IEEE |journal=Annals of the History of Computing |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=January–March 1986 |pages=74–76 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.1986.10008 |bibcode=1986IAHC....8a..74. |s2cid=36692260}}
-</ref> The [[IBM 650]] weighed over {{val|900|u=kg}}, the attached power supply weighed around {{val|1350|u=kg}} and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.5{{times}}0.9{{times}}{{val|1.8|u=meters}}. The system cost {{US$|500000}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Dudley |first=Leonard |title=Information Revolution in the History of the West |year=2008 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jLnPi5aYoJUC&pg=PA266 |isbn=978-1-84720-790-6 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |page=266 |access-date=2020-08-30}}</ref> (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|500000|1954|r=-4}}|0}} as of {{inflation/year|US}}) or could be leased for {{US$|3500}} a month (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3500|1954|r=-4}}|0}} as of {{inflation/year|US}}).{{Inflation-fn|US}} Its drum memory was originally 2,000 ten-digit words, later expanded to 4,000 words. Memory limitations such as this were to dominate programming for decades afterward.  The program instructions were fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran. Efficient execution using drum memory was provided by a combination of hardware architecture – the instruction format included the address of the next instruction – and software: the [[Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program]], SOAP,<ref>{{Citation |last=IBM |title=SOAP II for the IBM 650 |year=1957 |id=C24-4000-0 |url= http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/650/24-4000-0_SOAPII.pdf |access-date=2009-05-25 |archive-date=2009-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920081523/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/650/24-4000-0_SOAPII.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> assigned instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent possible by static analysis of the source program). Thus many instructions were, when needed, located in the next row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for drum rotation was reduced.
+</ref> The [[IBM 650]] weighed over {{val|900|u=kg}}, the attached power supply weighed around {{val|1350|u=kg}} and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.5{{times}}0.9{{times}}{{val|1.8|u=meters}}. The system cost {{US$|500000}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Dudley |first=Leonard |title=Information Revolution in the History of the West |year=2008 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jLnPi5aYoJUC&pg=PA266 |isbn=978-1-84720-790-6 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |page=266 |access-date=2020-08-30}}</ref> (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|500000|1954|r=-4}}|0}} as of {{inflation/year|US}}) or could be leased for {{US$|3500}} a month (${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|3500|1954|r=-4}}|0}} as of {{inflation/year|US}}).{{Inflation-fn|US}} Its drum memory was originally 2,000 ten-digit words, later expanded to 4,000 words. Memory limitations such as this were to dominate programming for decades afterward. The program instructions were fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran. Efficient execution using drum memory was provided by a combination of hardware architecture – the instruction format included the address of the next instruction – and software: the [[Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program]], SOAP,<ref>{{Citation |last=IBM |title=SOAP II for the IBM 650 |year=1957 |id=C24-4000-0 |url= http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/650/24-4000-0_SOAPII.pdf |access-date=2009-05-25 |archive-date=2009-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920081523/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/650/24-4000-0_SOAPII.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> assigned instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent possible by static analysis of the source program). Thus many instructions were, when needed, located in the next row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for drum rotation was reduced.
 ===Microprogramming===
 In 1951, British scientist [[Maurice Wilkes]] developed the concept of [[microcode|microprogramming]] from the realisation that the [[central processing unit]] of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialized [[computer program]] in high-speed [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. Microprogramming allows the base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in programs (now called [[firmware]] or [[microcode]]).{{sfn|Horowitz|Hill|1989|p=743}} This concept greatly simplified CPU development. He first described this at the [[University of Manchester]] Computer Inaugural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded form in ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]'' in 1955.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}
-It was widely used in the CPUs and [[floating-point]] units of [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] and other computers; it was implemented for the first time in [[EDSAC 2]],<ref name="edsac2">{{Cite journal |last1=Wilkes |first1=M. V. |author-link1=Maurice Wilkes| title=Edsac 2 |doi=10.1109/85.194055 |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing| volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=49–56 |year=1992 |s2cid=11377060}}</ref> which also used multiple identical "bit slices" to simplify design. Interchangeable, replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the processor.{{efn|The microcode was implemented as ''extracode'' on Atlas.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Atlas Supervisor |author1=T. Kilburn |author2=R. B. Payne |author3=D. J. Howarth |year=1962 |work=Atlas Computer |url=https://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/technology/atlas/p019.htm |access-date=2010-02-09 |archive-date=2009-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231062425/http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/technology/atlas/p019.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
+It was widely used in the CPUs and [[floating-point]] units of [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] and other computers; it was implemented for the first time in [[EDSAC 2]],<ref name="edsac2">{{Cite journal |last1=Wilkes |first1=M. V. |author-link1=Maurice Wilkes| title=Edsac 2 |doi=10.1109/85.194055 |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing| volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=49–56 |year=1992 |bibcode=1992IAHC...14d..49W |s2cid=11377060}}</ref> which also used multiple identical "bit slices" to simplify design. Interchangeable, replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the processor.{{efn|The microcode was implemented as ''extracode'' on Atlas.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Atlas Supervisor |author1=T. Kilburn |author2=R. B. Payne |author3=D. J. Howarth |year=1962 |work=Atlas Computer |url=https://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/technology/atlas/p019.htm |access-date=2010-02-09 |archive-date=2009-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231062425/http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/technology/atlas/p019.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
 ==Magnetic memory==
@@ Line 226: / Line 246: @@
 Magnetic [[drum memory|drum memories]] were developed for the US Navy during WW II with the work continuing at [[Engineering Research Associates]] (ERA) in 1946 and 1947. ERA, then a part of Univac included a drum memory in its [[UNIVAC 1103|1103]], announced in February 1953. The first mass-produced computer, the [[IBM 650]], also announced in 1953 had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory.
-[[Magnetic core|Magnetic-core]] memory patented in 1949<ref>{{Cite patent |country=US |number=2708722 |title=Pulse transfer controlling device |fdate=1949-10-21 |gdate=1955-05-17 |invent1=Wang |inventor1-first=An |inventorlink=An Wang}}</ref> with its first usage demonstrated for the [[Whirlwind I#The memory subsystem|Whirlwind computer]] in August 1953.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1953: Whirlwind computer debuts core memory |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/whirlwind-computer-debuts-core-memory/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508121757/http://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/whirlwind-computer-debuts-core-memory/ |archive-date=2018-05-08 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref> Commercialization followed quickly. Magnetic core was used in peripherals of the IBM 702 delivered in July 1955, and later in the 702 itself. The [[IBM 704]] (1955) and the Ferranti Mercury (1957) used magnetic-core memory. It went on to dominate the field into the 1970s, when it was replaced with semiconductor memory.  Magnetic core peaked in volume about 1975 and declined in usage and market share thereafter.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=paExEmGMXlAC&pg=PA419 |title=Takeover in the memory market |author=N. Valery |magazine=New Scientist |date=21 August 1975 |pages=419–421 |access-date=2019-01-22 |url-status=live |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181645/https://books.google.com/books?id=paExEmGMXlAC&pg=PA419}}</ref>
+[[Magnetic core|Magnetic-core]] memory patented in 1949<ref>{{Cite patent |country=US |number=2708722 |title=Pulse transfer controlling device |fdate=1949-10-21 |gdate=1955-05-17 |invent1=Wang |inventor1-first=An |inventorlink=An Wang}}</ref> with its first usage demonstrated for the [[Whirlwind I#The memory subsystem|Whirlwind computer]] in August 1953.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1953: Whirlwind computer debuts core memory |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/whirlwind-computer-debuts-core-memory/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508121757/http://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/whirlwind-computer-debuts-core-memory/ |archive-date=2018-05-08 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref> Commercialization followed quickly. Magnetic core was used in peripherals of the IBM 702 delivered in July 1955, and later in the 702 itself. The [[IBM 704]] (1955) and the Ferranti Mercury (1957) used magnetic-core memory. It went on to dominate the field into the 1970s, when it was replaced with semiconductor memory. Magnetic core peaked in volume about 1975 and declined in usage and market share thereafter.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=paExEmGMXlAC&pg=PA419 |title=Takeover in the memory market |author=N. Valery |magazine=New Scientist |date=21 August 1975 |pages=419–421 |access-date=2019-01-22 |url-status=live |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181645/https://books.google.com/books?id=paExEmGMXlAC&pg=PA419}}</ref>
 As late as 1980, PDP-11/45 machines using magnetic-core main memory and drums for swapping were still in use at many of the original UNIX sites.
@@ Line 232: / Line 252: @@
 ==Early digital computer characteristics==
 {{Further|Analytical Engine#Comparison to other early computers}}
-{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"
+{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"
 |+Defining characteristics of some early digital computers of the 1940s {{Small|(In the history of computing hardware)}}
 |-
-! Name !! First operational !! Numeral system !! Computing mechanism !! [[Computer program|Programming]] !! [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]]
+! Name !! Country |!! First operational !! Numeral system !! Computing mechanism !! [[Computer program|Programming]] !! [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]]
 |-
-|{{rh}}| Arthur H. Dickinson [[IBM]] {{small|(US)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | Jan 1940 || [[Decimal]]|| [[Electronics|Electronic]] || {{No2|Not}} programmable || {{No}}
+|{{rh}}| Arthur H. Dickinson [[IBM]] || USA ||style="text-align:right;" | Jan 1940 || [[Decimal]]|| [[Electronics|Electronic]] || {{No2|Not}} programmable || {{No}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Joseph Desch]] [[NCR Corporation|NCR]] {{small|(US)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | March 1940 || [[Decimal]] || [[Electronics|Electronic]] || {{No2|Not}} programmable || {{No}}
+|{{rh}}| [[Joseph Desch]] [[NCR Corporation|NCR]] || USA ||style="text-align:right;" | March 1940 || [[Decimal]] || [[Electronics|Electronic]] || {{No2|Not}} programmable || {{No}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Konrad Zuse|Zuse]] [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]] {{small|(Germany)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | May 1941 || [[Binary number|Binary]] [[floating-point arithmetic|floating point]] || [[Electromechanics|Electro-mechanical]] || Program-controlled by punched {{val|35|u=mm}} [[film stock]] (but no conditional branch) || In theory {{small|([[Z3 (computer)#Z3 as a universal Turing machine|1998]])}}
+|{{rh}}| [[Konrad Zuse|Zuse]] [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]] || Germany ||style="text-align:right;" | May 1941 || [[Binary number|Binary]] [[floating-point arithmetic|floating point]] || [[Electromechanics|Electro-mechanical]] || Program-controlled by punched {{val|35|u=mm}} [[film stock]] (but no conditional branch) || In theory {{small|([[Z3 (computer)#Z3 as a universal Turing machine|1998]])}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Atanasoff–Berry Computer]] {{small|(US)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | 1942|| Binary || [[Electronics|Electronic]] || {{No2|Not}} programmable — single purpose || {{No}}
+|{{rh}}| [[Atanasoff–Berry Computer]] || USA ||style="text-align:right;" | 1942|| Binary || [[Electronics|Electronic]] || {{No2|Not}} programmable — single purpose || {{No}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Colossus computer|Colossus]] Mark 1 {{small|(UK)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | Feb 1944 || Binary || Electronic || Program-controlled by patch cables and switches || {{No|[[Colossus computer#Influence and fate|No]]}}
+|{{rh}}| [[Colossus computer|Colossus]] Mark 1 || UK ||style="text-align:right;" | Feb 1944 || Binary || Electronic || Program-controlled by patch cables and switches || {{No|[[Colossus computer#Influence and fate|No]]}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Harvard Mark I|Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC]] {{small|(US)}} || style="text-align:right;" |May 1944 || [[Decimal]] || Electro-mechanical || Program-controlled by 24-channel [[punched tape|punched paper tape]] (but no conditional branch) || Debatable
+|{{rh}}| [[Harvard Mark I|Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC]] || USA || style="text-align:right;" |May 1944 || [[Decimal]] || Electro-mechanical || Program-controlled by 24-channel [[punched tape|punched paper tape]] (but no conditional branch) || Debatable
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Colossus computer|Colossus]] Mark 2 {{small|(UK)}} || style="text-align:right;" |June 1944 || Binary || Electronic || Program-controlled by patch cables and switches || Conjectured<ref name="Wells pp. 1383–1405">{{cite journal | last=Wells | first=Benjamin | title=Unwinding performance and power on Colossus, an unconventional computer | journal=Natural Computing | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=10 | issue=4 | date=2010-11-18 | issn=1567-7818 | doi=10.1007/s11047-010-9225-x | pages=1383–1405| s2cid=7492074 }}</ref>
+|{{rh}}| [[Colossus computer|Colossus]] Mark 2 || UK || style="text-align:right;" |June 1944 || Binary || Electronic || Program-controlled by patch cables and switches || Conjectured<ref name="Wells pp. 1383–1405">{{cite journal | last=Wells | first=Benjamin | title=Unwinding performance and power on Colossus, an unconventional computer | journal=Natural Computing | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=10 | issue=4 | date=2010-11-18 | issn=1567-7818 | doi=10.1007/s11047-010-9225-x | pages=1383–1405| s2cid=7492074 }}</ref>
 |-
-|{{rh}}| Zuse [[Z4 (computer)|Z4]] {{small|(Germany)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | March 1945 || Binary floating point <!-- for sure? "Numbers were entered and output as decimal floating-point even though the internal working was in binary" --> || Electro-mechanical || Program-controlled by punched {{val|35|u=mm}} film stock || [[Z4 (computer)#Construction|In 1950]]
+|{{rh}}| Zuse [[Z4 (computer)|Z4]] || Germany ||style="text-align:right;" | March 1945 || Binary floating point <!-- for sure? "Numbers were entered and output as decimal floating-point even though the internal working was in binary" --> || Electro-mechanical || Program-controlled by punched {{val|35|u=mm}} film stock || [[Z4 (computer)#Construction|In 1950]]
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[ENIAC]] {{small|(US)}} || style="text-align:right;" | <!-- "Feb 1946", no? "completed in 1945 and first put to work for practical purposes on December 10, 1945" --> December 1945 || Decimal || Electronic || Program-controlled by patch cables and switches || {{Yes}}
+|{{rh}}| [[ENIAC]] || USA || style="text-align:right;" | <!-- "Feb 1946", no? "completed in 1945 and first put to work for practical purposes on December 10, 1945" --> December 1945 || Decimal || Electronic || Program-controlled by patch cables and switches || {{Yes}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[ENIAC|Modified ENIAC]] {{small|(US)}} ||style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;" | April 1948 || Decimal || Electronic || Read-only stored-programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program [[read-only memory|ROM]] || {{Yes}}
+|{{rh}}| [[ENIAC|Modified ENIAC]] || USA ||style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;" | April 1948 || Decimal || Electronic || Read-only stored-programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program [[read-only memory|ROM]] || {{Yes}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[APEXC|ARC2 (SEC)]] {{small|(UK)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | May 1948 || Binary || Electronic || [[Stored-program computer|Stored-program]] in [[drum memory|rotating drum memory]] || {{Yes}}
+|{{rh}}| [[APEXC|ARC2 (SEC)]] || UK ||style="text-align:right;" | May 1948 || Binary || Electronic || [[Stored-program computer|Stored-program]] in [[drum memory|rotating drum memory]] || {{Yes}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Manchester Baby]] {{small|(UK)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | June 1948 || Binary || Electronic || [[Stored-program computer|Stored-program]] in [[Williams tube|Williams cathode-ray tube memory]] || {{Yes}}
+|{{rh}}| [[Manchester Baby]] || UK ||style="text-align:right;" | June 1948 || Binary || Electronic || [[Stored-program computer|Stored-program]] in [[Williams tube|Williams cathode-ray tube memory]] || {{Yes}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[Manchester Mark 1]] {{small|(UK)}} || style="text-align:right;" |April 1949 || Binary || Electronic || Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory and [[Drum memory|magnetic drum]] memory|| {{Yes}}
+|{{rh}}| [[Manchester Mark 1]] || UK || style="text-align:right;" |April 1949 || Binary || Electronic || Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory and [[Drum memory|magnetic drum]] memory|| {{Yes}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[EDSAC]] {{small|(UK)}} ||style="text-align:right;" | May 1949 ||Binary || Electronic || Stored-program in mercury [[delay-line memory]] || {{Yes}}
+|{{rh}}| [[EDSAC]] || UK ||style="text-align:right;" | May 1949 ||Binary || Electronic || Stored-program in mercury [[delay-line memory]] || {{Yes}}
 |-
-|{{rh}}| [[CSIRAC]] {{small|(Australia)}} || style="text-align:right;" | Nov 1949 || Binary || Electronic || Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory || {{Yes}}
+|{{rh}}| [[CSIRAC]] || Australia || style="text-align:right;" | Nov 1949 || Binary || Electronic || Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory || {{Yes}}
 |}
 ==Transistor computers==
 {{Main|Transistor computer}}
 {{Further|List of transistorized computers}}
 [[File:Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg|thumb|left|A [[bipolar junction transistor]] ]]
 The bipolar [[transistor]] was invented in 1947. From 1955 onward transistors replaced [[vacuum tube]]s in computer designs,{{sfn|Feynman|Leighton|Sands|1966|pp=14–11 to 14–12}} giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. Transistors greatly reduced computers' size, initial cost, and [[operating cost]]. Typically, second-generation computers were composed of large numbers of [[printed circuit board]]s such as the [[Standard Modular System|IBM Standard Modular System]],{{sfn|IBM|1960}} each carrying one to four [[logic gate]]s or [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flops]].
-At the [[University of Manchester]], a team under the leadership of [[Tom Kilburn]] designed and built a machine using the newly developed [[transistor]]s instead of valves. Initially the only devices available were [[germanium]] [[point-contact transistor]]s, less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power.{{sfn|Lavington|1998|pp=34–35}} Their first [[transistor computer|transistorized computer]], and the first in the world, was [[Manchester computers#Transistor Computer|operational by 1953]],{{sfn|Lavington|1998|p=37}} and a second version was completed there in April 1955.{{sfn|Lavington|1998|p=37}} The 1955 version used 200 transistors, 1,300 [[Solid-state electronics|solid-state]] [[diode]]s, and had a power consumption of 150 watts. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125&nbsp;kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer.
+At the [[University of Manchester]], a team under the leadership of [[Tom Kilburn]] designed and built a machine using the newly developed [[transistor]]s instead of valves (vacuum tubes). Initially the only devices available were [[germanium]] [[point-contact transistor]]s, less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power.{{sfn|Lavington|1998|pp=34–35}} Their first [[transistor computer|transistorized computer]], and the first in the world, was [[Manchester computers#Transistor Computer|operational by 1953]],{{sfn|Lavington|1998|p=37}} and a second version was completed there in April 1955.{{sfn|Lavington|1998|p=37}} The 1955 version used 200 transistors, 1,300 [[Solid-state electronics|solid-state]] [[diode]]s, and had a power consumption of 150 watts. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125&nbsp;kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer.
 That distinction goes to the [[Harwell CADET]] of 1955,<ref name="ieeexplore.ieee"/> built by the electronics division of the [[Atomic Energy Research Establishment]] at [[Harwell, Oxfordshire|Harwell]]. The design featured a 64-kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multiple moving heads that had been designed at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory, UK]]. By 1953 this team had transistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller magnetic drum from the [[Royal Radar Establishment]]. The machine used a low clock speed of only 58&nbsp;kHz to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock waveforms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cooke-Yarborough |first=E.H. |title=Introduction to Transistor Circuits |publisher=Oliver and Boyd |year=1957 |location=Edinburgh}}</ref><ref name="ieeexplore.ieee">{{cite journal| title=Some early transistor applications in the UK| journal=Engineering Science & Education Journal| volume=7| issue=3| pages=100–106| year=1998| last1=Cooke-Yarborough| first1=E.H.| doi=10.1049/esej:19980301| doi-broken-date=12 July 2025}}</ref>
@@ Line 283: / Line 304: @@
 ===Transistor peripherals===
-Transistorized electronics improved not only the CPU (Central Processing Unit), but also the [[peripheral|peripheral devices]]. The second generation [[disk storage|disk data storage units]] were able to store tens of millions of letters and digits.  Next to the [[fixed disk]] storage units, connected to the CPU via high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data storage units. A removable [[disk pack]] can be easily exchanged with another pack in a few seconds. Even if the removable disks' capacity is smaller than fixed disks, their interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity of data close at hand. [[Magnetic-tape data storage|Magnetic tape]] provided archival capability for this data, at a lower cost than disk.
+Transistorized electronics improved not only the CPU (Central Processing Unit), but also the [[peripheral|peripheral devices]]. The second generation [[disk storage|disk data storage units]] were able to store tens of millions of letters and digits. Next to the [[fixed disk]] storage units, connected to the CPU via high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data storage units. A removable [[disk pack]] can be easily exchanged with another pack in a few seconds. Even if the removable disks' capacity is smaller than fixed disks, their interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity of data close at hand. [[Magnetic-tape data storage|Magnetic tape]] provided archival capability for this data, at a lower cost than disk.
 Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral device communications to a secondary processor. For example, while the communication processor controlled [[Unit record equipment|card reading and punching]], the main CPU executed calculations and binary [[branch (computer science)|branch instructions]]. One [[Bus (computing)|databus]] would bear data between the main CPU and core memory at the CPU's [[fetch-execute cycle]] rate, and other databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices. On the [[PDP-1]], the core memory's cycle time was 5 microseconds; consequently most arithmetic instructions took 10 microseconds (100,000 operations per second) because most operations took at least two memory cycles; one for the instruction, one for the [[operand]] data fetch.
@@ Line 296: / Line 317: @@
 ==Integrated circuit computers==
-{{main|History of computing hardware (1960s–present)#Third generation}}
+{{Main|History of computing hardware (1960s–present)#Third generation}}
 The "third-generation" of digital electronic computers used [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips as the basis of their logic.
@@ Line 305: / Line 327: @@
 Noyce came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year after Kilby.<ref>{{Cite patent |country=US |number=2981877 |title=Semiconductor device-and-lead structure |gdate=1961-04-25 |invent1=Noyce |inventor1-first=Robert |inventorlink=Robert Noyce|assign1=[[Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation]]}}</ref> Noyce's invention was a [[monolithic integrated circuit]] (IC) chip.<ref name="computerhistory1959">{{cite web |title=1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/practical-monolithic-integrated-circuit-concept-patented/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=13 August 2019 |archive-date=2019-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024144046/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/practical-monolithic-integrated-circuit-concept-patented/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nasa"/> His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of [[silicon]], whereas Kilby's chip was made of [[germanium]]. The basis for Noyce's monolithic IC was Fairchild's [[planar process]], which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of [[printed circuit]]s. The planar process was developed by Noyce's colleague [[Jean Hoerni]] in early 1959, based on [[Mohamed M. Atalla]]'s work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide at [[Bell Labs]] in the late 1950s.<ref name="Lojek120">{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |page=120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bassett |first1=Ross Knox |title=To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology |date=2007 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=9780801886393 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA46 |access-date=2019-12-07 |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202181649/https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Huff |first1=Howard R. |last2=Tsuya |first2=H. |last3=Gösele |first3=U. |title=Silicon Materials Science and Technology: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Silicon Materials Science and Technology |date=1998 |publisher=[[Electrochemical Society]] |pages=181–182 |isbn=9781566771931 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SnQfAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181 |access-date=2019-12-07 |url-status=live |archive-date=2023-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202182712/https://books.google.com/books?id=SnQfAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA181}}</ref>
-Third generation (integrated circuit) computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes, and then in commercial computers beginning in the mid-1960s.  The first silicon IC computer was the [[Apollo Guidance Computer]] or AGC.<ref name= ceruzzi>{{cite web |title=Apollo Guidance Computer and the First Silicon Chips |last=Ceruzzi |first=Paul |date=2015 |website=SmithsonianNational Air and Space Museum |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/apollo-guidance-computer-and-first-silicon-chips |access-date=2021-05-12 |url-status=live |archive-date=2021-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522064136/https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/apollo-guidance-computer-and-first-silicon-chips}}</ref> Although not the most powerful computer of its time, the extreme constraints on size, mass, and power of the Apollo spacecraft required the AGC to be much smaller and denser than any prior computer, weighing in at only {{convert|70|lb|kg}}. Each lunar landing mission carried two AGCs, one each in the command and lunar ascent modules.
+Third generation (integrated circuit) computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes, and then in commercial computers beginning in the mid-1960s. The first silicon IC computer was the [[Apollo Guidance Computer]] or AGC.<ref name= ceruzzi>{{cite web |title=Apollo Guidance Computer and the First Silicon Chips |last=Ceruzzi |first=Paul |date=2015 |website=SmithsonianNational Air and Space Museum |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/apollo-guidance-computer-and-first-silicon-chips |access-date=2021-05-12 |url-status=live |archive-date=2021-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522064136/https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/apollo-guidance-computer-and-first-silicon-chips}}</ref> Although not the most powerful computer of its time, the extreme constraints on size, mass, and power of the Apollo spacecraft required the AGC to be much smaller and denser than any prior computer, weighing in at only {{convert|70|lb|kg}}. Each lunar landing mission carried two AGCs, one each in the command and lunar ascent modules.
 ==Semiconductor memory==
@@ Line 314: / Line 336: @@
 ==Microprocessor computers==
 {{Main|History of computing hardware (1960s–present)#Fourth generation}}
 The "fourth-generation" of digital electronic computers used [[microprocessor]]s as the basis of their logic. The microprocessor has origins in the [[MOS integrated circuit]] (MOS IC) chip.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal |last1=Shirriff |first1=Ken |title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors |journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]] |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=48–54 |date=30 August 2016 |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors |access-date=13 October 2019 |doi=10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353 |s2cid=32003640 |archive-date=2021-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712091202/https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/silicon-revolution/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors |url-status=live}}</ref> Due to rapid [[MOSFET scaling]], MOS IC chips rapidly increased in complexity at a rate predicted by [[Moore's law]], leading to [[large-scale integration]] (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to [[computing]] was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete [[computer processor]] could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip.<ref name="ieee"/>
-The subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor". The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the [[Four-Phase Systems]] AL-1 in 1969 and [[Garrett AiResearch]] [[MP944]] in 1970, developed with multiple MOS LSI chips.<ref name="ieee"/> The first single-chip microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]],{{sfn|Intel|1971}} developed on a single [[PMOS logic|PMOS]] LSI chip.<ref name="ieee"/> It was designed and realized by [[Marcian Hoff|Ted Hoff]], [[Federico Faggin]], [[Masatoshi Shima]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] at [[Intel]], and released in 1971.{{efn|The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12&nbsp;mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306&nbsp;mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 5.5 million transistors.{{sfn|Patterson|Hennessy|1998|pp=27–39}}}} [[Tadashi Sasaki (engineer)|Tadashi Sasaki]] and [[Masatoshi Shima]] at [[Busicom]], a calculator manufacturer, had the initial insight that the CPU could be a single MOS LSI chip, supplied by Intel.<ref name= 4bitSlice>{{cite web |first=William |last=Aspray |date=May 25, 1994 |title=Oral-History: Tadashi Sasaki |url=https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Tadashi_Sasaki |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802075939/https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Tadashi_Sasaki |archive-date=2020-08-02 |url-status=live}} [[Tadashi Sasaki (engineer)|Sasaki]] credits the idea for a 4 bit-slice PMOS chip to a woman researcher's idea at Sharp Corporation, which was not accepted by the other members of the Sharp brainstorming group. A 40-million yen infusion from Busicom to Intel was made at Sasaki's behest, to exploit the 4 bit-slice PMOS chip.</ref>{{sfn|Intel|1971}}
+The subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor". The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the [[Four-Phase Systems]] AL-1 in 1969 and [[Garrett AiResearch]] [[MP944]] in 1970, developed with multiple MOS LSI chips.<ref name="ieee"/> The first single-chip microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]],{{sfn|Intel|1971}} developed on a single [[PMOS logic|PMOS]] LSI chip.<ref name="ieee"/> It was designed and realized by [[Marcian Hoff|Ted Hoff]], [[Federico Faggin]], [[Masatoshi Shima]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] at [[Intel]], and released in 1971.{{efn|The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12&nbsp;mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306&nbsp;mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 5.5 million transistors.{{sfn|Patterson|Hennessy|1998|pp=27–39}}}}
 [[File:Intel 8742 153056995.jpg|right|thumb|The [[die (integrated circuit)|die]] from an Intel [[Intel MCS-48|8742]], an 8-bit [[microcontroller]] that includes a CPU running at 12&nbsp;MHz, RAM, EPROM, and I/O]]
 While the earliest microprocessor ICs literally contained only the processor, i.e. the central processing unit, of a computer, their progressive development naturally led to chips containing most or all of the internal electronic parts of a computer. The integrated circuit in the image on the right, for example, an [[Intel]] 8742, is an [[8-bit computing|8-bit]] [[microcontroller]] that includes a CPU running at 12&nbsp;MHz, 128 bytes of [[random-access memory|RAM]], 2048 bytes of [[EPROM]], and [[input/output|I/O]] in the same chip.
-During the 1960s, there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies.{{efn|In the defense field, considerable work was done in the computerized implementation of equations such as {{harvnb|Kalman|1960|pp=35–45}}.}} IBM implemented its [[IBM Solid Logic Technology]] modules in [[hybrid circuit]]s for the IBM System/360 in 1964. As late as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494. The [[Burroughs large systems]] such as the B5000 were [[stack machine]]s, which allowed for simpler programming. These [[pushdown automaton]]s were also implemented in minicomputers and microprocessors later, which influenced programming language design. Minicomputers served as low-cost computer centers for industry, business and universities.{{sfn|Eckhouse|Morris|1979|pp=1–2}} It became possible to simulate analog circuits with the ''simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis'', or [[SPICE]] (1971) on minicomputers, one of the programs for electronic design automation ([[:Category:Electronic design automation software|EDA]]). The microprocessor led to the development of [[microcomputer]]s, small, low-cost computers that could be owned by individuals and small businesses. Microcomputers, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond.
+During the 1960s, there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies.{{efn|In the defense field, considerable work was done in the computerized implementation of equations such as {{harvnb|Kalman|1960|pp=35–45}}.}} IBM implemented its [[IBM Solid Logic Technology]] modules in [[hybrid circuit]]s for the IBM System/360 in 1964. As late as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494. The [[Burroughs Large Systems]] such as the B5000 were [[stack machine]]s, which allowed for simpler programming. These [[pushdown automaton]]s were also implemented in minicomputers and microprocessors later, which influenced programming language design. Minicomputers served as low-cost computer centers for industry, business and universities.{{sfn|Eckhouse|Morris|1979|pp=1–2}} It became possible to simulate analog circuits with the ''simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis'', or [[SPICE]] (1971) on minicomputers, one of the programs for electronic design automation ([[:Category:Electronic design automation software|EDA]]). The microprocessor led to the development of [[microcomputer]]s, small, low-cost computers that could be owned by individuals and small businesses. Microcomputers, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond.
 [[File:Altair 8800 Computer.jpg|right|thumb|Altair 8800]]
@@ Line 336: / Line 359: @@
 In the 21st century, [[multi-core]] CPUs became commercially available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shrout |first=Ryan |date=2 December 2009 |website=PC Perspective |url=https://pcper.com/2009/12/intel-shows-48-core-x86-processor-as-single-chip-cloud-computer/ |title=Intel Shows 48-core x86 Processor as Single-chip Cloud Computer|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100814203128/http://www.pcper.com/article.php?aid=825 |archive-date=2010-08-14 |url-status=live |access-date=2020-12-02}}<br/>{{*}}{{cite web |date=3 December 2009 |title=Intel unveils 48-core cloud computing silicon chip |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8392392.stm |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2012-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121206054225/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8392392.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Content-addressable memory]] (CAM){{sfn|Kohonen|1980|p={{page needed|date=August 2023}}}} has become inexpensive enough to be used in networking, and is frequently used for on-chip [[cache memory]] in modern microprocessors, although no computer system has yet implemented hardware CAMs for use in programming languages. Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in software are programming-language-specific. Semiconductor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and manufacturers prove their processes on them; this allows price reductions on memory products. During the 1980s, [[CMOS]] [[logic gates]] developed into devices that could be made as fast as other circuit types; computer power consumption could therefore be decreased dramatically. Unlike the continuous current draw of a gate based on other logic types, a CMOS gate only draws significant current, except for leakage, during the 'transition' between logic states.{{sfn|Mead|Conway|1980|pp=11-36}}
-CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a commercial [[Product (business)|product]] which is now ubiquitous, embedded in [[embedded system|many forms]], from greeting cards and [[Mobile phone|telephone]]s to [[Satellite communications#History|satellites]]. The [[thermal design power]] which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation. In 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total U.S. electricity consumption.<ref>{{cite report |date=2007 |title=Energystar report |page=4 |url=https://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |access-date=2013-08-18 |archive-date=2013-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022230644/http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |url-status=live }}</ref> The energy consumption of computer data centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011. The [[System on a chip|SoC]] (system on a chip) has compressed even more of the [[integrated circuit]]ry into a single chip; SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single hand-held wireless [[mobile computing|mobile device]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Walt |last=Mossberg |date=9 July 2014 |url=https://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/ |title=How the PC is merging with the smartphone |access-date=2014-07-09 |url-status=live |archive-date=2014-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709183504/http://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/}}</ref>
+CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a commercial [[Product (business)|product]] which is now ubiquitous, embedded in [[embedded system|many forms]], from greeting cards and [[Mobile phone|telephone]]s to [[Satellite communications#History|satellites]]. The [[thermal design power]] which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation. In 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total U.S. electricity consumption.<ref>{{cite report |date=2007 |title=Energystar report |page=4 |url=https://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |access-date=2013-08-18 |archive-date=2013-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022230644/http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |url-status=live }}</ref> The energy consumption of computer data centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011. The [[System on a chip|SoC]] (system on a chip) has compressed even more of the [[integrated circuit]]ry into a single chip; SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single hand-held wireless [[mobile computing|mobile device]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Walt |last=Mossberg |date=9 July 2014 |url=https://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/ |title=How the PC is merging with the smartphone |work=Re/code |access-date=2014-07-09 |url-status=live |archive-date=2014-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709183504/http://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/}}</ref>
 {{anchor|quantum computing}}[[Quantum computing]] is an emerging technology in the field of computing. ''MIT Technology Review'' reported 10 November 2017 that IBM has created a 50-[[qubit]] computer; currently its quantum state lasts 50 microseconds.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609451/ibm-raises-the-bar-with-a-50-qubit-quantum-computer/ |first=Will |last=Knight |work=MIT Technology Review |date=10 November 2017 |title=IBM Raises the Bar with a 50-Qubit Quantum Computer |access-date=2017-11-10 |url-status=live |archive-date=2017-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112050728/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609451/ibm-raises-the-bar-with-a-50-qubit-quantum-computer/}}</ref> Google researchers have been able to extend the 50 microsecond time limit, as reported 14 July 2021 in ''Nature'';<ref name=quantumErrorCorrection/> stability has been extended 100-fold by spreading a single logical qubit over chains of data qubits for [[quantum error correction]].<ref name=quantumErrorCorrection>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03588-y |doi-access=free |collaboration=Google Quantum AI |author=Julian Kelly |display-authors=etal |date=15 July 2021 |title=Exponential suppression of bit or phase errors with cyclic error correction |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7867 |pages=383–387 |pmid=34262210 |pmc=8279951 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03588-y.pdf?pdf=button%20sticky}} Cited in {{cite web |author=Adrian Cho |date=14 July 2021 |title=Physicists move closer to defeating errors in quantum computation |magazine=Science |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/physicists-move-closer-defeating-errors-quantum-computation}}</ref> ''Physical Review X'' reported a technique for 'single-gate sensing as a viable readout method for spin qubits' (a singlet-triplet spin state in silicon) on 26 November 2018.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Single-Shot Single-Gate rf Spin Readout in Silicon |first1=P. |last1=Pakkiam |first2=A. V. |last2=Timofeev |first3=M. G. |last3=House |first4=M. R. |last4=Hogg |first5=T. |last5=Kobayashi |first6=M. |last6=Koch |first7=S. |last7=Rogge |first8=M. Y. |last8=Simmons |date=26 November 2018 |journal=Physical Review X |volume=8 |issue=4 |at=041032 |via=APS |doi=10.1103/PhysRevX.8.041032 |arxiv=1809.01802 |bibcode=2018PhRvX...8d1032P |s2cid=119363882}}</ref> A Google team has succeeded in operating their RF pulse modulator chip at 3&nbsp;[[kelvin]]s, simplifying the cryogenics of their 72-qubit computer, which is set up to operate at 0.3&nbsp;[[kelvin|K]]; but the readout circuitry and another driver remain to be brought into the cryogenics.<ref name=72qubits>{{cite web |first=Samuel K. |last=Moore |work=IEEE Spectrum |date=13 March 2019 |title=Google Builds Circuit to Solve One of Quantum Computing's Biggest Problems |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/google-team-builds-circuit-to-solve-one-of-quantum-computings-biggest-problems |access-date=2019-03-14 |archive-date=2019-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314213116/https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/semiconductors/design/google-team-builds-circuit-to-solve-one-of-quantum-computings-biggest-problems |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|name=ibmEagle |IBM's 127-qubit computer cannot be simulated on traditional computers.<ref name=127qubits>{{cite web |author=Ina Fried |date=14 Nov 2021 |url=https://www.axios.com/ibm-quantum-computing-axios-hbo-bd9d50b7-3c11-4586-bdb1-8bbc9928ad1b.html |title=Exclusive: IBM achieves quantum computing breakthrough |website=Axios |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115133314/https://www.axios.com/ibm-quantum-computing-axios-hbo-bd9d50b7-3c11-4586-bdb1-8bbc9928ad1b.html |archive-date=2021-11-15 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} ''See: [[Quantum supremacy]]''<ref>{{cite web |first=Russ |last=Juskalian |date=22 February 2017 |title=Practical Quantum Computers |url=https://mittr-frontend-prod.herokuapp.com/s/603495/10-breakthrough-technologies-2017-practical-quantum-computers/amp/ |work=MIT Technology Review|access-date=2020-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623193833/https://mittr-frontend-prod.herokuapp.com/s/603495/10-breakthrough-technologies-2017-practical-quantum-computers/amp/ |archive-date=2021-06-23 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=John D. |last=MacKinnon |date=19 December 2018 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/congress-expected-to-pass-bill-spurring-quantum-computing-11545250595 |work=The Wall Street Journal |title=House Passes Bill to Create National Quantum Computing Program |access-date=2018-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220084728/https://www.wsj.com/articles/congress-expected-to-pass-bill-spurring-quantum-computing-11545250595 |archive-date=2018-12-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> Silicon qubit systems have demonstrated [[quantum entanglement|entanglement]] at [[action at a distance|non-local]] distances.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://scitechdaily.com/quantum-computing-breakthrough-silicon-qubits-interact-at-long-distance/ |author=Princeton University |date=25 December 2019 |title=Quantum Computing Breakthrough: Silicon Qubits Interact at Long-Distance |work=SciTechDaily |access-date=2019-12-26 |archive-date=2019-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226165255/https://scitechdaily.com/quantum-computing-breakthrough-silicon-qubits-interact-at-long-distance/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
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 ==Epilogue==
-An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred from the history of the seminal 1947 article by Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann.<ref>{{harvnb|Burks|Goldstine|von Neumann|1947|pp=1–464}} reprinted in ''[[Datamation]]'', September–October 1962. Note that ''preliminary discussion/design'' was the term later called ''system analysis/design'', and even later, called ''system architecture.''</ref> By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete. After 1945, others read John von Neumann's  ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC'', and immediately started implementing their own systems. To this day, the rapid pace of development has continued, worldwide.{{efn|''[[DBLP]]'' summarizes the ''[[Annals of the History of Computing]]'', year by year, back to 1979.<ref>{{cite web |title=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |publisher=[[Dagstuhl|Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik]] |url=https://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/journals/annals/ |access-date=2023-08-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320212935/http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/journals/annals/ |archive-date=2011-03-20}}</ref>}}{{efn|The fastest [[supercomputer]] of the [[top 500]] is now Frontier (of Oak Ridge National Laboratory) at 1.102 ExaFlops,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-30 |title=ORNL's Frontier First to Break the Exaflop Ceiling |website=top500.org |url=https://www.top500.org/news/ornls-frontier-first-to-break-the-exaflop-ceiling/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602004225/https://www.top500.org/news/ornls-frontier-first-to-break-the-exaflop-ceiling/ |archive-date=2022-06-02 |access-date=2023-08-26}}</ref> which is 2.66 times faster than Fugaku, now number two of the top 500.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gizmodo.com/japans-new-fugaku-supercomputer-is-number-one-ranking-1844126655 |first=Tom |last=McKay |date=22 June 2020 |title=Japan's New Fugaku Supercomputer Is Number One, Ranking in at 415 Petaflops |website=Gizmodo |access-date=2020-06-23 |archive-date=2020-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623174019/https://gizmodo.com/japans-new-fugaku-supercomputer-is-number-one-ranking-1844126655 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
+An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred from the history of the seminal 1947 article by Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann.<ref>{{harvnb|Burks|Goldstine|von Neumann|1947|pp=1–464}} reprinted in ''[[Datamation]]'', September–October 1962. Note that ''preliminary discussion/design'' was the term later called ''system analysis/design'', and even later, called ''system architecture.''</ref> By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete. After 1945, others read John von Neumann's ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC'', and immediately started implementing their own systems. To this day, the rapid pace of development has continued, worldwide.{{efn|''[[DBLP]]'' summarizes the ''[[Annals of the History of Computing]]'', year by year, back to 1979.<ref>{{cite web |title=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |publisher=[[Dagstuhl|Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik]] |url=https://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/journals/annals/ |access-date=2023-08-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320212935/http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/journals/annals/ |archive-date=2011-03-20}}</ref>}}{{efn|The fastest [[supercomputer]] of the [[top 500]] is now Frontier (of Oak Ridge National Laboratory) at 1.102 ExaFlops,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-30 |title=ORNL's Frontier First to Break the Exaflop Ceiling |website=top500.org |url=https://www.top500.org/news/ornls-frontier-first-to-break-the-exaflop-ceiling/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602004225/https://www.top500.org/news/ornls-frontier-first-to-break-the-exaflop-ceiling/ |archive-date=2022-06-02 |access-date=2023-08-26}}</ref> which is 2.66 times faster than Fugaku, now number two of the top 500.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gizmodo.com/japans-new-fugaku-supercomputer-is-number-one-ranking-1844126655 |first=Tom |last=McKay |date=22 June 2020 |title=Japan's New Fugaku Supercomputer Is Number One, Ranking in at 415 Petaflops |website=Gizmodo |access-date=2020-06-23 |archive-date=2020-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623174019/https://gizmodo.com/japans-new-fugaku-supercomputer-is-number-one-ranking-1844126655 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
 ==See also==
-* [[Antikythera mechanism]]
+* {{annotated link|Antikythera mechanism}}
-* [[History of computing]]
+* {{annotated link|History of computing}}
-* [[History of computing hardware (1960s–present)]]
+* {{annotated link|History of computing hardware (1960s–present)}}
-* [[History of laptops]]
+* {{annotated link|History of laptops}}
-* [[History of personal computers]]
+* {{annotated link|History of personal computers}}
-* [[History of software]]
+* {{annotated link|History of software}}
-* [[Information Age]]
+* {{Annotated link|History of supercomputing}}
-* [[IT History Society]]
+* {{annotated link|Information Age}}
-* [[Retrocomputing]]
+* {{annotated link|IT History Society}}
-* [[Timeline of computing]]
+* {{annotated link|Retrocomputing}}
-* [[List of pioneers in computer science]]
+* {{annotated link|Timeline of computing}}
-* [[Vacuum-tube computer]]
+* {{annotated link|List of pioneers in computer science}}
+* {{annotated link|Vacuum-tube computer}}
 ==Notes==
 {{notelist|40em}}
-{{reflist|refs=
+<references>
 <ref name=EarlyComputers>{{citation |title=Early Electronic Computers (1946–51) |publisher=University of Manchester |url=https://www.computer50.org/mark1/contemporary.html |access-date=16 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105031620/http://www.computer50.org/mark1/contemporary.html |archive-date=5 January 2009 |website=Computer 50}}</ref>
-}}
+</references>
 ==References==
@@ Line 456: / Line 480: @@
 |date=September 1971
 |doi=10.1109/TCT.1971.1083337
+|bibcode=1971ITCT...18..507C
 |citeseerx=10.1.1.404.9037
 }}
@@ Line 950: / Line 975: @@
    | issue = 4479
    | bibcode = 1981Sci...211..283S }}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Shannon |first1=Claude |author-link=Claude Shannon |date=December 1938 |title=A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits |journal=Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers |volume=57 |issue=12| pages=713–723 |doi=10.1109/t-aiee.1938.5057767| title-link=A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits |s2cid=51638483|hdl=1721.1/11173 |hdl-access=free }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Shannon |first1=Claude |author-link=Claude Shannon |date=December 1938 |title=A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits |journal=Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers |volume=57 |issue=12| pages=713–723 |doi=10.1109/t-aiee.1938.5057767| title-link=A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits |bibcode=1938TAIEE..57..713S |s2cid=51638483|hdl=1721.1/11173 |hdl-access=free }}
 * {{Citation
    | first = Claude E.
@@ Line 1,019: / Line 1,044: @@
 }}
 * {{Citation |language=fr |title=Histoire du calcul. Que sais-je ? n° 198 |first=René |last=Taton |year=1969 |publisher=Presses universitaires de France }}
-* {{cite journal |last=Turing |first=Alan M. |author-link=Alan M. Turing |date=1937 |title=On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem |journal=Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society |series=2 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=230–265 |doi=10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 |s2cid=73712}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Turing |first=Alan M. |author-link=Alan M. Turing |date=1937 |title=On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem |journal=Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society |series=2 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=230–265 |doi=10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 |bibcode=1937PLMS...42..230T |s2cid=73712}}
 ** Other online sources:<br/>{{*}}{{cite web |ref=none |last=Turing |first=A. M. |author-mask=1 |date=1937 |title=On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem |url=https://archive.org/details/pdfy-Zc8HeJshvCrCGg1N |access-date=2023-08-31 |via=Internet Archive}}<br/>{{*}}{{cite web |ref=none |last=Turing |first=A. M. |author-mask=1 |date=1937 |title=On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem |url=https://www.thocp.net/biographies/papers/turing_oncomputablenumbers_1936.pdf |via=thocp.net |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110222111427/http://www.thocp.net/biographies/papers/turing_oncomputablenumbers_1936.pdf |archive-date=2011-02-22 |url-status=dead}}
 ** {{cite journal |last=Turing |first=A. M. |author-mask=1 |date=1938 |title=On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction |journal=Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society |series=2 |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=544–546 |doi=10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544}}
@@ Line 1,084: / Line 1,109: @@
 * {{cite web |title=online access |url=https://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLPublication.jsp?pubtype=m&acronym=an |work=[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060523142200/http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLPublication.jsp?pubtype=m&acronym=an |archive-date=2006-05-23 |url-status=dead}}
 * {{Citation | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | author-link = Paul E. Ceruzzi | title = A History of Modern Computing  | publisher = The MIT Press | year = 1998 }}
+* Haigh, Thomas; Ceruzzi , Paul E. (2021) : ''A New History of Modern Computing'' (History of Computing), Cambridge, Massachusetts ; London, England: MIT Press, 544 pp.
 * [https://www.bitsavers.org/magazines/Computers_And_Automation/ Computers and Automation] Magazine – Pictorial Report on the Computer Field:
 ** ''A PICTORIAL INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS'' – [https://www.bitsavers.org/magazines/Computers_And_Automation/195706.pdf 06/1957]

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