Analytical engine: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description| | {{Short description|19th century proposed mechanical computer}} | ||
{{ | {{Use British English|date=July 2022}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} | ||
[[File:Babbages Analytical Engine, 1834-1871. (9660574685).jpg|thumb|Portion of the calculating machine with a printing mechanism of the analytical engine, built by Charles Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum (London)<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=https://collection.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/co62245/babbages-analytical-engine-1834-1871-trial-model-analytical-engines|title=Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1834–1871. (Trial model)|publisher=Science Museum|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref>]] | [[File:Babbages Analytical Engine, 1834-1871. (9660574685).jpg|thumb|Portion of the calculating machine with a printing mechanism of the analytical engine, built by Charles Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum (London)<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=https://collection.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/co62245/babbages-analytical-engine-1834-1871-trial-model-analytical-engines|title=Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1834–1871. (Trial model)|publisher=Science Museum|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref>]] | ||
{{History of computing}} | {{History of computing}} | ||
The '''analytical engine''' was a proposed [[ | The '''analytical engine''' was a proposed [[Digital information|digital]] [[machine|mechanical]] [[general-purpose computer]] designed by the English mathematician and computer pioneer [[Charles Babbage]].<ref>{{cite web|first=John |last=Graham-Cumming |url=https://radar.oreilly.com/2010/10/the-100-year-leap.html |title=The 100-year leap |publisher=O'Reilly Radar|date=4 October 2010 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory.org">{{cite web |title=The Babbage Engine: The Engines |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/engines/ |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |year=2016 |access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbage's [[difference engine]], which was a design for a simpler mechanical calculator.{{sfn|Bromley|1982|p=196}} | ||
The analytical engine incorporated an [[arithmetic logic unit]], [[control flow]] in the form of [[conditional branching]] and [[program loop#Loops|loops]], and integrated [[computer memory|memory]], making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]].<ref name="babbageonline">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/babbage.aspx?page=5 |title=Babbage | work = Online stuff |publisher=Science Museum |date=19 January 2007 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827915.500-lets-build-babbages-ultimate-mechanical-computer.html |title=Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer |department=opinion |work=New Scientist |date=23 December 2010 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> In other words, the structure of the analytical engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era.<ref name="computerhistory.org"/> The analytical engine is one of the most successful achievements of Charles Babbage. | The analytical engine incorporated an [[arithmetic logic unit]], [[control flow]] in the form of [[conditional branching]] and [[program loop#Loops|loops]], and integrated [[computer memory|memory]], making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]].<ref name="babbageonline">{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/babbage.aspx?page=5 |title=Babbage |work=Online stuff |publisher=Science Museum |date=19 January 2007 |access-date=1 August 2012 |archive-date=7 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807185334/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/babbage.aspx?page=5 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827915.500-lets-build-babbages-ultimate-mechanical-computer.html |title=Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer |department=opinion |work=New Scientist |date=23 December 2010 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> In other words, the structure of the analytical engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era.<ref name="computerhistory.org"/> The analytical engine is one of the most successful achievements of Charles Babbage. | ||
Babbage was never able to complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his chief engineer and inadequate funding.<ref name="meccano" /><ref name="nineteenth century science">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4SB4BHzFeIC&pg=PA84 |title=19th Century Science, an Anthology | first = Alan S | last = Weber |date= 10 March 2000|publisher=Broadview Press |access-date=1 August 2012|isbn=9781551111650 }}</ref> It was not until 1941 that [[Konrad Zuse]] built the first general-purpose computer, [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], more than a century after Babbage had proposed the pioneering analytical engine in 1837.<ref name="computerhistory.org"/> | Babbage was never able to complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his chief engineer and inadequate funding.<ref name="meccano" /><ref name="nineteenth century science">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4SB4BHzFeIC&pg=PA84 |title=19th Century Science, an Anthology | first = Alan S | last = Weber |date= 10 March 2000|publisher=Broadview Press |access-date=1 August 2012|isbn=9781551111650 }}</ref> It was not until 1941 that [[Konrad Zuse]] built the first general-purpose computer, [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], more than a century after Babbage had proposed the pioneering analytical engine in 1837.<ref name="computerhistory.org"/> | ||
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[[File:Analytical Engine (2290032530).jpg|thumb|[[Henry Babbage]]'s analytical engine mill, built in 1910,<ref name="mill" /> in the [[Science Museum (London)]]]] | [[File:Analytical Engine (2290032530).jpg|thumb|[[Henry Babbage]]'s analytical engine mill, built in 1910,<ref name="mill" /> in the [[Science Museum (London)]]]] | ||
Intermittently from 1880 to 1910,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osHuAAAAMAAJ&q=Munro+1910|title=Proceedings of the centenary assembly of the Institute of Actuaries|last=Britain)|first=Institute of Actuaries (Great|date=1950|publisher=Printed for the Institute of Actuaries at the University Press|pages=178|language=en}}</ref> Babbage's son [[Henry Prevost Babbage]] was constructing a part of the mill and the printing apparatus. In 1910, it was able to calculate a (faulty) list of multiples of [[pi]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtqpCAAAQBAJ|title=The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers|last=Randell|first=Brian|date=21 December 2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783642618123|language=en|chapter=2.3. Babbage's Analytical Engine. H. P. Babbage (1910)}}</ref> This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage. (Popular images of this section have sometimes been mislabelled, implying that it was the entire mill or even the entire engine.) Henry Babbage's "analytical engine mill" is on display at the Science Museum in London.<ref name="mill">{{cite web|url=https://collection.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/co62246/henry-babbages-analytical-engine-mill-1910-analytical-engine-mills |title=Henry Babbage's Analytical Engine Mill, 1910. |publisher=Science Museum |date=16 January 2007 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> Henry also proposed building a demonstration version of the full engine, with a smaller storage capacity: "perhaps for a first machine ten (columns) would do, with fifteen wheels in each".<ref name="fourmilab">{{cite web |url= | Intermittently from 1880 to 1910,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osHuAAAAMAAJ&q=Munro+1910|title=Proceedings of the centenary assembly of the Institute of Actuaries|last=Britain)|first=Institute of Actuaries (Great|date=1950|publisher=Printed for the Institute of Actuaries at the University Press|pages=178|language=en}}</ref> Babbage's son [[Henry Prevost Babbage]] was constructing a part of the mill and the printing apparatus. In 1910, it was able to calculate a (faulty) list of multiples of [[pi]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtqpCAAAQBAJ|title=The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers|last=Randell|first=Brian|date=21 December 2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783642618123|language=en|chapter=2.3. Babbage's Analytical Engine. H. P. Babbage (1910)}}</ref> This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage. (Popular images of this section have sometimes been mislabelled, implying that it was the entire mill or even the entire engine.) Henry Babbage's "analytical engine mill" is on display at the Science Museum in London.<ref name="mill">{{cite web|url=https://collection.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/co62246/henry-babbages-analytical-engine-mill-1910-analytical-engine-mills |title=Henry Babbage's Analytical Engine Mill, 1910. |publisher=Science Museum |date=16 January 2007 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> Henry also proposed building a demonstration version of the full engine, with a smaller storage capacity: "perhaps for a first machine ten (columns) would do, with fifteen wheels in each".<ref name="fourmilab">{{cite web |url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/hpb.html |title=The Analytical Engine (Henry P. Babbage 1888) |publisher=Fourmilab.ch |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> Such a version could manipulate 20 numbers of 25 digits each, and what it could be told to do with those numbers could still be impressive. "It is only a question of cards and time", wrote Henry Babbage in 1888, "... and there is no reason why (twenty thousand) cards should not be used if necessary, in an analytical engine for the purposes of the mathematician".<ref name="fourmilab" /> | ||
In 1991, the [[London Science Museum]] built a complete and working specimen of Babbage's [[Difference Engine No. 2]], a design that incorporated refinements Babbage discovered during the development of the analytical engine.<ref name="babbageonline" /> This machine was built using materials and [[engineering tolerance]]s that would have been available to Babbage, quelling the suggestion that Babbage's designs could not have been produced using the manufacturing technology of his time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/modernsequel/ |title=A Modern Sequel — The Babbage Engine |publisher=Computer History Museum |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> | In 1991, the [[London Science Museum]] built a complete and working specimen of Babbage's [[Difference Engine No. 2]], a design that incorporated refinements Babbage discovered during the development of the analytical engine.<ref name="babbageonline" /> This machine was built using materials and [[engineering tolerance]]s that would have been available to Babbage, quelling the suggestion that Babbage's designs could not have been produced using the manufacturing technology of his time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/modernsequel/ |title=A Modern Sequel — The Babbage Engine |publisher=Computer History Museum |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> | ||
In October 2010, [[John Graham-Cumming]] started a "Plan 28" campaign to raise funds by "public subscription" to enable serious historical and academic study of Babbage's plans, with a view to then build and test a fully working virtual design which will then in turn enable construction of the physical analytical engine.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11530905 | work=BBC News | title=Campaign builds to construct Babbage Analytical Engine | date=14 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= | In October 2010, [[John Graham-Cumming]] started a "Plan 28" campaign to raise funds by "public subscription" to enable serious historical and academic study of Babbage's plans, with a view to then build and test a fully working virtual design which will then in turn enable construction of the physical analytical engine.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11530905 | work=BBC News | title=Campaign builds to construct Babbage Analytical Engine | date=14 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://plan28.org/ |title=Building Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine |publisher=Plan 28 |date=27 July 2009 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Markoff|first=John|date=7 November 2011|title=It Started Digital Wheels Turning|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/08/science/computer-experts-building-1830s-babbage-analytical-engine.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/08/science/computer-experts-building-1830s-babbage-analytical-engine.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited|access-date=2021-06-10|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> As of May 2016, actual construction had not been attempted, since no consistent understanding could yet be obtained from Babbage's original design drawings. In particular it was unclear whether it could handle the indexed variables which were required for Lovelace's Bernoulli program.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spring 2016 report to the Computer Conservation Society| publisher=Plan 28|url=https://blog.plan28.org/2016/05/spring-2016-report-to-computer.html| access-date=29 October 2016}}</ref> By 2017, the "Plan 28" effort reported that a searchable database of all catalogued material was available, and an initial review of Babbage's voluminous Scribbling Books had been completed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.plan28.org/2017/05/spring-2017-report-to-computer.html|title=Spring 2017 report to the Computer Conservation Society|website=blog.plan28.org|access-date=13 June 2017}}</ref> | ||
Many of Babbage's original drawings have been digitised and are publicly available online.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1821–1905|title=The Babbage Papers|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/documents/aa110000003/the-babbage-papers|url-status=live|website=Science Museum Group|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413021056/https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/documents/aa110000003/the-babbage-papers |archive-date=13 April 2020 }}</ref> | Many of Babbage's original drawings have been digitised and are publicly available online.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1821–1905|title=The Babbage Papers|url=https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/documents/aa110000003/the-babbage-papers|url-status=live|website=Science Museum Group|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413021056/https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/documents/aa110000003/the-babbage-papers |archive-date=13 April 2020 }}</ref> | ||
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[[Percy Ludgate]] wrote about the engine in 1914<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/moderninstrument00horsuoft#page/127/mode/1up/search/1906|title=Modern instruments and methods of calculation : a handbook of the Napier Tercentenary Exhibition|last1=Horsburg|first1=E. M. (Ellice Martin)|last2=Napier Tercentenary Exhibition|date=1914|publisher=London : G. Bell|others=Gerstein – University of Toronto|pages=124–127|chapter=''Automatic Calculating Machines'' by P. E. Ludgate}}</ref> and published his own design for an analytical engine in 1909.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ludgate, Percy E. |date=April 1909 |title=On a proposed analytical machine |journal=Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society | volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=77–91 }} Available on-line at: [http://www.fano.co.uk/ludgate/paper.html Fano.co.UK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807233247/http://www.fano.co.uk/ludgate/paper.html |date=7 August 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002.pdf/ |title=The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416071721/https://www.scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was drawn up in detail, but never built, and the drawings have never been found. Ludgate's engine would be much smaller (about {{Convert|230|L|cuft|lk=out|abbr=on}} than Babbage's, and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two 20-decimal-digit numbers in about six seconds.{{Sfn|Randell|1982|p=4–5}} | [[Percy Ludgate]] wrote about the engine in 1914<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/moderninstrument00horsuoft#page/127/mode/1up/search/1906|title=Modern instruments and methods of calculation : a handbook of the Napier Tercentenary Exhibition|last1=Horsburg|first1=E. M. (Ellice Martin)|last2=Napier Tercentenary Exhibition|date=1914|publisher=London : G. Bell|others=Gerstein – University of Toronto|pages=124–127|chapter=''Automatic Calculating Machines'' by P. E. Ludgate}}</ref> and published his own design for an analytical engine in 1909.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ludgate, Percy E. |date=April 1909 |title=On a proposed analytical machine |journal=Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society | volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=77–91 }} Available on-line at: [http://www.fano.co.uk/ludgate/paper.html Fano.co.UK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807233247/http://www.fano.co.uk/ludgate/paper.html |date=7 August 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002.pdf/ |title=The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416071721/https://www.scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was drawn up in detail, but never built, and the drawings have never been found. Ludgate's engine would be much smaller (about {{Convert|230|L|cuft|lk=out|abbr=on}} than Babbage's, and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two 20-decimal-digit numbers in about six seconds.{{Sfn|Randell|1982|p=4–5}} | ||
In | In ''Essays on Automatics'' (1914),<ref>{{cite web |last=Torres Quevedo |first=Leonardo |title=Essays on Automatics. Its Definition — Theoretical Extent of Its Applications|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-61812-3_6|publisher=Springer Nature |year=1914 |language=en}}</ref> [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] expanded upon Babbage's ideas by proposing a theoretical electromechanical calculating machine controlled by a [[Read-only memory|read-only]] program. The work also introduced concepts conceptually related to [[floating-point arithmetic]]<ref>Ronald T. Kneusel. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eq4ZDgAAQBAJ&dq=leonardo+torres+quevedo++electromechanical+machine+essays&pg=PA84 Numbers and Computers],'' Springer, pp. 84–85, 2017. {{ISBN|978-3319505084}}</ref> and explored the possibility of automating complex reasoning processes through electromechanical means. In 1920, he demonstrated the feasibility of these ideas through an electromechanical arithmometer connected to a typewriter capable of automatically printing results.{{Sfn|Randell|1982|p=6, 11–13}}{{sfn|Bromley|1990}}<ref>{{cite book | title=Encyclopedia of Computer Science | chapter=Digital computers, history of | date=January 2003 | pages=545–570 | publisher=John Wiley and Sons | isbn=978-0-470-86412-8 | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/1074100.1074334 }}</ref> | ||
[[Vannevar Bush]]'s paper ''Instrumental Analysis'' (1936) included several references to Babbage's work. In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Percy Ludgate's Analytical Machine |url=http://www.fano.co.uk/ludgate/ |access-date=29 October 2018 |website=fano.co.uk |at=''From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush'' by Brian Randell, 1982, Ludgate: pp. 4–5, Quevedo: pp. 6, 11–13, Bush: pp. 13, 16–17}}</ref> | [[Vannevar Bush]]'s paper ''Instrumental Analysis'' (1936) included several references to Babbage's work. In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Percy Ludgate's Analytical Machine |url=http://www.fano.co.uk/ludgate/ |access-date=29 October 2018 |website=fano.co.uk |at=''From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush'' by Brian Randell, 1982, Ludgate: pp. 4–5, Quevedo: pp. 6, 11–13, Bush: pp. 13, 16–17}}</ref> | ||
Despite | Despite these developments, much of Babbage's original work remained relatively unknown to many builders of electromechanical and electronic computing machines in the 1930s and 1940s, resulting in the independent reinvention of several architectural ideas later associated with the analytical engine. [[Howard Aiken]], who built the quickly-obsoleted electromechanical calculator, the [[Harvard Mark I]], between 1937 and 1945, praised Babbage's work likely as a way of enhancing his own stature, but knew nothing of the analytical engine's architecture during the construction of the Mark I, and considered his visit to the constructed portion of the analytical engine "the greatest disappointment of my life".{{sfn|Cohen|2000}} The Mark I showed no influence from the analytical engine and lacked the analytical engine's most prescient architectural feature, [[conditional branching]].{{sfn|Cohen|2000}} [[J. Presper Eckert]] and [[John W. Mauchly]] similarly were not aware of the details of Babbage's analytical engine work prior to the completion of their design for the first electronic general-purpose computer, the [[ENIAC]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://special.lib.umn.edu/cbi/oh/pdf.phtml?id%3D245 |access-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724084105/http://special.lib.umn.edu/cbi/oh/pdf.phtml?id=245 |title=J. Presper Eckert Interview 28 October 1977|archive-date=24 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://invention.smithsonian.org/downloads/fa_cohc_tr_mauc730223.pdf |access-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111055745/http://invention.smithsonian.org//downloads/fa_cohc_tr_mauc730223.pdf |title=Computer Oral History Collection, 1969–1973, 1977 |archive-date=11 November 2010 }}</ref> | ||
== Comparison to other early computers == | == Comparison to other early computers == | ||
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| [[Binary numeral system|Binary]] [[floating-point arithmetic|floating point]] | | [[Binary numeral system|Binary]] [[floating-point arithmetic|floating point]] | ||
| [[Mechanical engineering|Mechanical]] | | [[Mechanical engineering|Mechanical]] | ||
| | | Program-controlled by punched {{val|35|u=mm}} [[film stock]] (no conditional branch) | ||
| In theory (Microcode is Turing complete) | |||
| Physical state of rods | | Physical state of rods | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| [[Electromechanics|Electro-mechanical]] | | [[Electromechanics|Electro-mechanical]] | ||
| Program-controlled by 24-channel [[punched tape|punched paper tape]] (but no conditional branch) | | Program-controlled by 24-channel [[punched tape|punched paper tape]] (but no conditional branch) | ||
| Debatable | | Debatable {{cn|date=March 2026}} | ||
| Mechanical relays<ref>{{cite web |title=The Mark I Computer |url=https://chsi.harvard.edu/markone/function.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710053417/http://chsi.harvard.edu/markone/function.html |archive-date=10 July 2015 |work=[[Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments]] |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> | | Mechanical relays<ref>{{cite web |title=The Mark I Computer |url=https://chsi.harvard.edu/markone/function.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710053417/http://chsi.harvard.edu/markone/function.html |archive-date=10 July 2015 |work=[[Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments]] |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> | ||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Zuse [[Z4 (computer)|Z4]] {{small|(Germany)}} | ! Zuse [[Z4 (computer)|Z4]] {{small|(Germany)}} | ||
| March 1945 (or 1948)<ref>{{cite web |title=Konrad Zuse—the first relay computer |url=https://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Relays/Zuse.html |publisher=History of Computers |access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> | | March 1945 (or 1948)<ref>{{cite web |title=Konrad Zuse—the first relay computer |url=https://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Relays/Zuse.html |publisher=History of Computers |access-date=7 May 2016 |archive-date=1 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101000011/https://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Relays/Zuse.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ||
| [[Binary number|Binary]] [[floating-point arithmetic|floating point]] | | [[Binary number|Binary]] [[floating-point arithmetic|floating point]] | ||
| [[Electromechanics|Electro-mechanical]] | | [[Electromechanics|Electro-mechanical]] | ||
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== Bibliography == | == Bibliography == | ||
{{refbegin}} | {{refbegin|30em}} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Babbage |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Babbage |title=Passages from the Life of a Philosopher |chapter=Chapter VIII – Of the Analytical Engine |year=1864 |chapter-url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/lpae.html |location=London |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green |pages=112–141 }} | * {{cite book |last=Babbage |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Babbage |title=Passages from the Life of a Philosopher |chapter=Chapter VIII – Of the Analytical Engine |year=1864 |chapter-url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/lpae.html |location=London |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green |pages=112–141 }} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Babbage |first=Charles |editor-last=Babbage |editor-first=Henry P. |url=https://monoskop.org/images/4/40/Babbage_Charles_Calculating_Engines.pdf |title=Babbage's Calculating Engines – Being a Collection of Papers Relating to Them; Their History, and Construction |year=1889 |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-00096-3 |access-date=24 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104606/http://monoskop.org/images/4/40/Babbage_Charles_Calculating_Engines.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }} | * {{cite book |last=Babbage |first=Charles |editor-last=Babbage |editor-first=Henry P. |url=https://monoskop.org/images/4/40/Babbage_Charles_Calculating_Engines.pdf |title=Babbage's Calculating Engines – Being a Collection of Papers Relating to Them; Their History, and Construction |year=1889 |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-00096-3 |access-date=24 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104606/http://monoskop.org/images/4/40/Babbage_Charles_Calculating_Engines.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }} | ||
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* {{cite thesis |last=Collier |first=Bruce |title=The Little Engines That Could've: The Calculating Machines of Charles Babbage |type=PhD |publisher=Harvard University |year=1970 |url=https://robroy.dyndns.info/collier |access-date=18 December 2015 }} | * {{cite thesis |last=Collier |first=Bruce |title=The Little Engines That Could've: The Calculating Machines of Charles Babbage |type=PhD |publisher=Harvard University |year=1970 |url=https://robroy.dyndns.info/collier |access-date=18 December 2015 }} | ||
* {{cite journal |last=Green |first=Christopher D. |author-link=Christopher D. Green |year=2005 |title=Was Babbage's Analytical Engine intended to be a mechanical model of the mind? |url=https://www.yorku.ca/christo/papers/babbage-HoP.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.yorku.ca/christo/papers/babbage-HoP.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=History of Psychology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=35–45 |doi=10.1037/1093-4510.8.1.35 |pmid=16021763 |access-date=25 December 2015 }} | * {{cite journal |last=Green |first=Christopher D. |author-link=Christopher D. Green |year=2005 |title=Was Babbage's Analytical Engine intended to be a mechanical model of the mind? |url=https://www.yorku.ca/christo/papers/babbage-HoP.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.yorku.ca/christo/papers/babbage-HoP.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=History of Psychology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=35–45 |doi=10.1037/1093-4510.8.1.35 |pmid=16021763 |access-date=25 December 2015 }} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Menabrea |first1=Luigi Federico |author-link1=Luigi Federico Menabrea |last2=Lovelace |first2=Ada |author-link2=Ada Lovelace |editor=Richard Taylor |title=Scientific Memoirs |date=1843 |volume=3 |pages=666–731 |chapter=Sketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage... with notes by the translator. Translated by Ada Lovelace |chapter-url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html |location=London |publisher=Richard and John E. Taylor |title-link=Scientific Memoirs }} | * {{cite book |last1=Menabrea |first1=Luigi Federico |author-link1=Luigi Federico Menabrea |last2=Lovelace |first2=Ada |author-link2=Ada Lovelace |editor=Richard Taylor |title=Scientific Memoirs |date=1843 |volume=3 |pages=666–731 |chapter=Sketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage... with notes by the translator. Translated by Ada Lovelace |chapter-url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html |location=London |publisher=Richard and John E. Taylor |title-link=Scientific Memoirs }} | ||
* {{cite journal |last=Randell |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Randell |url=https://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf |date=October–December 1982 |title=From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=327–341 |doi=10.1109/mahc.1982.10042 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-21 |s2cid=1737953 }} | * {{cite journal |last=Randell |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Randell |url=https://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf |date=October–December 1982 |title=From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=327–341 |doi=10.1109/mahc.1982.10042 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-21 |s2cid=1737953 }} | ||
{{refend}} | {{refend}} | ||