Howitzer: Difference between revisions
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The '''howitzer''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|.|ɪ|t|s|ər}}) is an [[artillery]] weapon that falls between a [[cannon]] (or [[field gun]]) and a [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]. It is capable of both low angle fire like a field gun and high angle fire like a mortar, given the distinction between low and high angle fire breaks at 45 degrees | The '''howitzer''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|.|ɪ|t|s|ər}}) is an [[artillery]] weapon that falls between a [[cannon]] (or [[field gun]]) and a [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]. It is capable of both low angle fire like a field gun and high angle fire like a mortar, given the distinction between low and high angle fire breaks at 45 degrees, also referred to as its equivalent 800 mils (milliradians). With their long-range capabilities, howitzers can be used to great effect in a [[Artillery battery|battery]] formation with other artillery pieces, such as long-barreled guns, mortars, and [[rocket artillery]]. Howitzers were valued for their ability to fire [[explosive]] shells and [[incendiary device|incendiary materials]] into fortifications. | ||
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, howitzers evolved to become more mobile and versatile. The introduction of [[rifling]] in the mid-19th century led to significant changes in howitzer design and usage. By the early 20th century, howitzers were classified into different categories based on their size and role, including field howitzers, siege howitzers, super-heavy siege howitzers, and defence howitzers. | Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, howitzers evolved to become more mobile and versatile. The introduction of [[rifling]] in the mid-19th century led to significant changes in howitzer design and usage. By the early 20th century, howitzers were classified into different categories based on their size and role, including field howitzers, siege howitzers, super-heavy siege howitzers, and defence howitzers. | ||
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In the middle of the 18th century, a number of European armies began to introduce howitzers that were mobile enough to accompany armies in the field. Though usually fired at the relatively high angles of fire used by contemporary siege howitzers, these field howitzers were rarely defined by this capability. Rather, as the field guns of the day were usually restricted to inert projectiles (which relied entirely on momentum for their destructive effects), the field howitzers of the 18th century were chiefly valued for their ability to fire explosive shells. Many, for the sake of simplicity and rapidity of fire, dispensed with adjustable propellant charges.<ref>Heinrich Rohne, "Zur Geschichte der schweren Feldhaubitze", ''Jahrbücher für die deutsche Armee und Marine'', No. 423, pp. 567–68</ref> | In the middle of the 18th century, a number of European armies began to introduce howitzers that were mobile enough to accompany armies in the field. Though usually fired at the relatively high angles of fire used by contemporary siege howitzers, these field howitzers were rarely defined by this capability. Rather, as the field guns of the day were usually restricted to inert projectiles (which relied entirely on momentum for their destructive effects), the field howitzers of the 18th century were chiefly valued for their ability to fire explosive shells. Many, for the sake of simplicity and rapidity of fire, dispensed with adjustable propellant charges.<ref>Heinrich Rohne, "Zur Geschichte der schweren Feldhaubitze", ''Jahrbücher für die deutsche Armee und Marine'', No. 423, pp. 567–68</ref> | ||
The [[Abus gun]] was an early form of howitzer in the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Dragoman">{{cite web|url=http://magweb.com/sample/sdra/sdr12gun.htm |title=William Johnson, "The Sultan's Big Guns." ''Dragoman'', vol.1, no.2 |access-date=2017-04-05 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710015533/http://magweb.com/sample/sdra/sdr12gun.htm |archive-date=July 10, 2007 }}</ref> In 1758, the [[Russian Empire]] introduced a specific type of howitzer (or rather gun-howitzer), with a conical chamber, called a [[licorne]], which remained in service for the next 100 years.<ref name="angus">{{cite book|last=Konstam|first=Angus |title=Russian Army of the Seven Years War (2)|publisher=Osprey Publishing|place=Londyn|year=1996|series=Men-at-Arms|pages=41|isbn=978-1-85532-587-6}}</ref> In the mid-19th century, some armies attempted to simplify their artillery parks by introducing [[smoothbore]] artillery pieces that were designed to fire both explosive projectiles and cannonballs, thereby replacing both field howitzers and field guns. The most famous of these "gun-howitzers" was the [[Canon obusier de 12|Napoleon 12-pounder]], a weapon of French design that was extensively used in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>Ildefonse Favé, | The [[Abus gun]] was an early form of howitzer in the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Dragoman">{{cite web|url=http://magweb.com/sample/sdra/sdr12gun.htm |title=William Johnson, "The Sultan's Big Guns." ''Dragoman'', vol.1, no.2 |access-date=2017-04-05 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710015533/http://magweb.com/sample/sdra/sdr12gun.htm |archive-date=July 10, 2007 }}</ref> In 1758, the [[Russian Empire]] introduced a specific type of howitzer (or rather gun-howitzer), with a conical chamber, called a [[licorne]], which remained in service for the next 100 years.<ref name="angus">{{cite book|last=Konstam|first=Angus |title=Russian Army of the Seven Years War (2)|publisher=Osprey Publishing|place=Londyn|year=1996|series=Men-at-Arms|pages=41|isbn=978-1-85532-587-6}}</ref> In the mid-19th century, some armies attempted to simplify their artillery parks by introducing [[smoothbore]] artillery pieces that were designed to fire both explosive projectiles and cannonballs, thereby replacing both field howitzers and field guns. The most famous of these "gun-howitzers" was the [[Canon obusier de 12|Napoleon 12-pounder]], a weapon of French design that was extensively used in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>Ildefonse Favé, "Résumé des progrès de l’artillerie depuis l’année 1800 jusqu’a l’année 1853", in [[Louis Bonaparte|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]] and Ildefonse Favé, ''Études sur le passé et l'avenir de de l'artillerie'', (Paris: J. Dumaine, 1846–71), V, pp. 223–25</ref> | ||
[[File:Oldhowitzer.jpg|thumb|upright=1|12-pound Napoleon at the [[Colorado State Capitol]]]] | [[File:Oldhowitzer.jpg|thumb|upright=1|12-pound Napoleon at the [[Colorado State Capitol]]]] | ||
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=== 20th century === | === 20th century === | ||
In the early 20th century, the introduction of howitzers that were significantly larger than the heavy siege howitzers of the day made necessary the creation of a fourth category, that of "super-heavy siege howitzers". Weapons of this category include the famous [[Big Bertha (Howitzer)|Big Bertha]] of the German Army and the [[BL 15 inch Howitzer|15-inch (381 mm) howitzer]] of the British [[Royal Marines|Royal Marine Artillery]]. These large howitzers were transported mechanically rather than by teams of horses. They were transported as several loads and had to be assembled at their firing position.<ref>Romanych, Marc; Rupp, Martin (2013). '' | In the early 20th century, the introduction of howitzers that were significantly larger than the heavy siege howitzers of the day made necessary the creation of a fourth category, that of "super-heavy siege howitzers". Weapons of this category include the famous [[Big Bertha (Howitzer)|Big Bertha]] of the German Army and the [[BL 15 inch Howitzer|15-inch (381 mm) howitzer]] of the British [[Royal Marines|Royal Marine Artillery]]. These large howitzers were transported mechanically rather than by teams of horses. They were transported as several loads and had to be assembled at their firing position.<ref>Romanych, Marc; Rupp, Martin (2013). ''42 cm "Big Bertha" and German Siege Artillery of World War I''. Illustrated by Henry Morshead. Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-78096-017-3}}</ref> | ||
Field howitzers introduced at the end of the 19th century could fire shells with high trajectories giving a steep angle of descent and, as a result, could strike targets that were protected by intervening obstacles. They could also fire shells that were about twice as large as shells fired by guns of the same size. Thus, while a {{convert|75|mm|abbr=on}} field gun that weighed one ton or so was limited to shells that weigh around {{convert|8|kg|abbr=on}}, a {{convert|105|mm|abbr=on}} howitzer of the same weight could fire {{convert|15|kg|abbr=on}} shells. This is a matter of fundamental mechanics affecting the stability and hence the weight of the carriage. | Field howitzers introduced at the end of the 19th century could fire shells with high trajectories giving a steep angle of descent and, as a result, could strike targets that were protected by intervening obstacles. They could also fire shells that were about twice as large as shells fired by guns of the same size. Thus, while a {{convert|75|mm|abbr=on}} field gun that weighed one ton or so was limited to shells that weigh around {{convert|8|kg|abbr=on}}, a {{convert|105|mm|abbr=on}} howitzer of the same weight could fire {{convert|15|kg|abbr=on}} shells. This is a matter of fundamental mechanics affecting the stability and hence the weight of the carriage. | ||
As heavy field howitzers and light siege howitzers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries used ammunition of the same size and type, there was a marked tendency for the two types to merge. At first, this was largely a matter of the same basic weapon being employed on two different mountings. Later, as on-carriage recoil-absorbing systems eliminated many of the advantages that siege platforms had enjoyed over field carriages, the same combination of barrel assembly, recoil mechanism and carriage was used in both roles.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} | As heavy field howitzers and light siege howitzers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries used [[ammunition]] of the same size and type, there was a marked tendency for the two types to merge. At first, this was largely a matter of the same basic weapon being employed on two different mountings. Later, as on-carriage recoil-absorbing systems eliminated many of the advantages that siege platforms had enjoyed over field carriages, the same combination of barrel assembly, recoil mechanism and carriage was used in both roles.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} | ||
By the early 20th century, the differences between guns and howitzers were relative, not absolute, and generally recognized<ref>H. A. Bethell, ''Modern Guns and Gunnery'', (Woolwich: F. J. Cattermole, 1905, 1907, 1910)</ref> as follows: | By the early 20th century, the differences between guns and howitzers were relative, not absolute, and generally recognized<ref>H. A. Bethell, ''Modern Guns and Gunnery'', (Woolwich: F. J. Cattermole, 1905, 1907, 1910)</ref> as follows: | ||
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Many howitzers introduced in the course of World War I had longer barrels than pre-war howitzers. The standard German light field howitzer at the start of the war (the [[10.5 cm Feldhaubitze 98/09|10.5 cm leichte Feldhaubitze 98/09]]) had a barrel that was 16 [[Caliber (artillery)|calibers]] long, but the light field howitzer adopted by the German Army in 1916 ([[10.5 cm leFH 16|105 mm leichte Feldhaubitze 16]]) had a barrel that was 22 calibers long. At the same time, new models of field gun introduced during that conflict, such as the {{convert|77|mm|abbr=on}} field gun adopted by the German Army in 1916 ([[7.7 cm FK 16|7.7 cm Feldkanone 16]]) were often provided with carriages that allowed firing at comparatively high angles, and adjustable propellant cartridges.<ref>Hans Linnenkohl, {{lang|de|Vom Einzelschuss zur Feuerwalze}} (Koblenz: Bernard und Graefe, 1990), pp. 86 and 219–220</ref> | Many howitzers introduced in the course of World War I had longer barrels than pre-war howitzers. The standard German light field howitzer at the start of the war (the [[10.5 cm Feldhaubitze 98/09|10.5 cm leichte Feldhaubitze 98/09]]) had a barrel that was 16 [[Caliber (artillery)|calibers]] long, but the light field howitzer adopted by the German Army in 1916 ([[10.5 cm leFH 16|105 mm leichte Feldhaubitze 16]]) had a barrel that was 22 calibers long. At the same time, new models of field gun introduced during that conflict, such as the {{convert|77|mm|abbr=on}} field gun adopted by the German Army in 1916 ([[7.7 cm FK 16|7.7 cm Feldkanone 16]]) were often provided with carriages that allowed firing at comparatively high angles, and adjustable propellant cartridges.<ref>Hans Linnenkohl, {{lang|de|Vom Einzelschuss zur Feuerwalze}} (Koblenz: Bernard und Graefe, 1990), pp. 86 and 219–220</ref> | ||
In the years after World War I, the tendency of guns and howitzers to acquire each other's characteristics led to the renaissance of the concept of the [[gun-howitzer]]. This was a product of technical advances such as the French invention of [[autofrettage]] just before World War I, which led to stronger and lighter barrels, the use of cut-off gear to control recoil length depending on firing elevation angle, and the invention of [[muzzle brake]]s to reduce [[recoil]] forces. Like the gun-howitzers of the 19th century, those of the 20th century replaced both guns and howitzers. Thus, the [[Ordnance QF 25 pounder|25-pounder "gun-howitzer"]] of the British Army replaced both the [[Ordnance QF 18 pounder|18-pounder]] field gun and the [[QF 4.5 inch Howitzer|4.5-inch howitzer]].<ref> | In the years after World War I, the tendency of guns and howitzers to acquire each other's characteristics led to the renaissance of the concept of the [[gun-howitzer]]. This was a product of technical advances such as the French invention of [[autofrettage]] just before World War I, which led to stronger and lighter barrels, the use of cut-off gear to control recoil length depending on firing elevation angle, and the invention of [[muzzle brake]]s to reduce [[recoil]] forces. Like the gun-howitzers of the 19th century, those of the 20th century replaced both guns and howitzers. Thus, the [[Ordnance QF 25 pounder|25-pounder "gun-howitzer"]] of the British Army replaced both the [[Ordnance QF 18 pounder|18-pounder]] field gun and the [[QF 4.5 inch Howitzer|4.5-inch howitzer]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=25-Pounder Field Gun/Howitzer : Juno Beach Centre |url=https://www.junobeach.org/canada-in-wwii/articles/artillery/25-pounder-field-gunhowitzer/ |access-date=2026-05-19 |website=www.junobeach.org}}</ref> | ||
During [[World War II]], the military doctrine of [[Soviet deep battle]] called for extensive use of heavy artillery to hold the formal line of front. Soviet doctrine was remarkably different from the German doctrine of [[Blitzkrieg]] and called for a far more extensive use of artillery. As a result, howitzers saw most of the action on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern front]]. Most of the howitzers produced by the [[USSR]] at the time were not self-propelled. Notable examples of Soviet howitzers include the [[152 mm howitzer M1938 (M-10)|M-10]], [[122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30)|M-30]] and [[152 mm howitzer M1943 (D-1)|D-1]]. | During [[World War II]], the military doctrine of [[Soviet deep battle]] called for extensive use of heavy artillery to hold the formal line of front. Soviet doctrine was remarkably different from the German doctrine of [[Blitzkrieg]] and called for a far more extensive use of artillery. As a result, howitzers saw most of the action on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern front]]. Most of the howitzers produced by the [[USSR]] at the time were not self-propelled. Notable examples of Soviet howitzers include the [[152 mm howitzer M1938 (M-10)|M-10]], [[122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30)|M-30]] and [[152 mm howitzer M1943 (D-1)|D-1]]. | ||