Icon: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
imported>InternetArchiveBot Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 |
imported>SchlurcherBot m Bot: http → https |
||
| Line 4: | Line 4: | ||
{{Eastern Orthodox sidebar|expanded= theology}} | {{Eastern Orthodox sidebar|expanded= theology}} | ||
An '''icon''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|εἰκών}}'' ({{grc-transl|εἰκών}})|image, resemblance}}) is a religious work of art, most commonly a [[painting]], in the cultures of the [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=Jordan |title=The Great Divide: A Lutheran Evaluation of Reformed Theology |date=27 August 2015 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-4982-2423-9 |page=101 |language=en}}</ref> The most common subjects include [[Jesus]], [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], [[saint]]s, and [[ | An '''icon''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|εἰκών}}'' ({{grc-transl|εἰκών}})|image, resemblance}}) is a religious work of art, most commonly a [[painting]], in the cultures of the [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=Jordan |title=The Great Divide: A Lutheran Evaluation of Reformed Theology |date=27 August 2015 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-4982-2423-9 |page=101 |language=en}}</ref> The most common subjects include [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]], [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], [[saint]]s, and [[Angels in Christianity|angels]]. Although especially associated with portrait style images concentrating on one or two main figures, the term also covers most of the religious images in a variety of artistic media produced by [[Eastern Christianity]], including narrative scenes, usually from the Bible or the lives of saints. | ||
Icons are most commonly painted on wood panels with [[egg tempera]], but they may also be cast in metal or carved in stone or embroidered on cloth or done in [[mosaic]] or fresco work or printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from [[Western Christianity]] may be classified as "icons", although "iconic" may also be used to describe the static style of a devotional image. In the Greek language, the term for icon painting uses the same word as for "writing", and Orthodox sources often translate it into English as ''icon writing''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://orthodoxhistory.org/2010/06/08/icons-are-not-written/|title=Icons Are Not "Written"|website=Orthodox History|date=8 June 2010}}</ref> | Icons are most commonly painted on wood panels with [[Tempera|egg tempera]], but they may also be cast in metal or carved in stone or embroidered on cloth or done in [[mosaic]] or fresco work or printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from [[Western Christianity]] may be classified as "icons", although "iconic" may also be used to describe the static style of a devotional image. In the Greek language, the term for icon painting uses the same word as for "writing", and Orthodox sources often translate it into English as ''icon writing''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://orthodoxhistory.org/2010/06/08/icons-are-not-written/|title=Icons Are Not "Written"|website=Orthodox History|date=8 June 2010}}</ref> | ||
Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the production of Christian images dates back to the very [[Early Christianity|early days of Christianity]], and that it has been a continuous tradition since then. Modern academic [[art history]] considers that, while images may have existed earlier, the tradition can be traced back only as far as the 3rd century, and that the images which survive from [[Early Christian art]] often differ greatly from later ones. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, though very few of these survive. Widespread destruction of images occurred during the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] of 726–842, although this did settle permanently the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then, icons have had a great continuity of style and subject, far greater than in the icons of the [[Western church]]. At the same time there has been change and development. | Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the production of Christian images dates back to the very [[Early Christianity|early days of Christianity]], and that it has been a continuous tradition since then. Modern academic [[art history]] considers that, while images may have existed earlier, the tradition can be traced back only as far as the 3rd century, and that the images which survive from [[Early Christian art]] often differ greatly from later ones. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, though very few of these survive. Widespread destruction of images occurred during the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] of 726–842, although this did settle permanently the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then, icons have had a great continuity of style and subject, far greater than in the icons of the [[Western church]]. At the same time there has been change and development. | ||
| Line 44: | Line 44: | ||
At least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical [[Synod of Elvira]] ({{circa|305}}) bishops concluded, "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration".<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.conorpdowling.com/library/council-of-elvira | title= The Gentle Exit » Council of Elvira | work= Conorpdowling.com | access-date= 2012-12-10 | archive-date= 2018-11-06 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181106195812/http://www.conorpdowling.com/library/council-of-elvira | url-status= dead }}</ref> | At least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical [[Synod of Elvira]] ({{circa|305}}) bishops concluded, "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration".<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.conorpdowling.com/library/council-of-elvira | title= The Gentle Exit » Council of Elvira | work= Conorpdowling.com | access-date= 2012-12-10 | archive-date= 2018-11-06 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181106195812/http://www.conorpdowling.com/library/council-of-elvira | url-status= dead }}</ref> | ||
Bishop [[Epiphanius of Salamis]], wrote his letter 51 to John, Bishop of Jerusalem ({{circa|394}}) in which he recounted how he tore down an image in a church and admonished the other bishop that such images are "opposed{{nbsp}}[...] to our religion".<ref>{{cite web|url= | Bishop [[Epiphanius of Salamis]], wrote his letter 51 to John, Bishop of Jerusalem ({{circa|394}}) in which he recounted how he tore down an image in a church and admonished the other bishop that such images are "opposed{{nbsp}}[...] to our religion".<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001051.htm|title= Church Fathers: Letter 51 (Jerome)|website= www.newadvent.org}}</ref> | ||
====Icons in Eusebius to Philostorgius (425 AD)==== | ====Icons in Eusebius to Philostorgius (425 AD)==== | ||
| Line 130: | Line 130: | ||
Eastern Orthodoxy further teaches that "a clear understanding of the importance of Icons" was part of the church from its very beginning, and has never changed, although explanations of their importance may have developed over time. This is because icon painting is rooted in the theology of the Incarnation (Christ being the {{transliteration|grc|eikon}} of God) which did not change, though its subsequent clarification within the Church occurred over the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Icons also served as tools of edification for the illiterate faithful during most of the history of [[Christendom]]. Thus, icons are words in painting; they refer to the history of salvation and to its manifestation in concrete persons. In the Orthodox Church, "icons have always been understood as a visible gospel, as a testimony to the great things given man by God the incarnate Logos".<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |first=Constantine B. |last=Scouteris |author-link=Constantine B. Scouteris |title='Never as Gods': Icons and Their Veneration |journal=Sobornost |volume=6 |date=1984 |pages=6–18 |url= http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/liturgics/scouteris_icons.html |via=Orthodox Research Institute}}</ref> In the Council of 860 it was stated that "all that is uttered in words written in syllables is also proclaimed in the language of colors".<ref>Mansi xvi. 40D. See also Evdokimov, ''L'Orthodoxie'' (Neuchâtel 1965), p. 222.</ref> | Eastern Orthodoxy further teaches that "a clear understanding of the importance of Icons" was part of the church from its very beginning, and has never changed, although explanations of their importance may have developed over time. This is because icon painting is rooted in the theology of the Incarnation (Christ being the {{transliteration|grc|eikon}} of God) which did not change, though its subsequent clarification within the Church occurred over the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Icons also served as tools of edification for the illiterate faithful during most of the history of [[Christendom]]. Thus, icons are words in painting; they refer to the history of salvation and to its manifestation in concrete persons. In the Orthodox Church, "icons have always been understood as a visible gospel, as a testimony to the great things given man by God the incarnate Logos".<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |first=Constantine B. |last=Scouteris |author-link=Constantine B. Scouteris |title='Never as Gods': Icons and Their Veneration |journal=Sobornost |volume=6 |date=1984 |pages=6–18 |url= http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/liturgics/scouteris_icons.html |via=Orthodox Research Institute}}</ref> In the Council of 860 it was stated that "all that is uttered in words written in syllables is also proclaimed in the language of colors".<ref>Mansi xvi. 40D. See also Evdokimov, ''L'Orthodoxie'' (Neuchâtel 1965), p. 222.</ref> | ||
Eastern Orthodoxy identifies the first instance of an image or icon in the Bible as the creation of man in God's own image (Septuagint Greek {{transliteration|grc|eikona}}), in Genesis 1:26–27.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|1:26–27}}</ref> In Exodus, God initially commanded the Israelites not to make any graven images. However, shortly thereafter, God instructed them to create images of cherubim and other similar beings, both in the form of statues and woven into tapestries. Later, when Solomon built the First Temple, he incorporated even more such imagery.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exodus 20 Gill's Exposition |url=https://bibleapps.com/gill/exodus/20.htm |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=bibleapps.com}}</ref>{{ | Eastern Orthodoxy identifies the first instance of an image or icon in the Bible as the creation of man in God's own image (Septuagint Greek {{transliteration|grc|eikona}}), in Genesis 1:26–27.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|1:26–27}}</ref> In Exodus, God initially commanded the Israelites not to make any graven images. However, shortly thereafter, God instructed them to create images of cherubim and other similar beings, both in the form of statues and woven into tapestries. Later, when Solomon built the First Temple, he incorporated even more such imagery.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exodus 20 Gill's Exposition |url=https://bibleapps.com/gill/exodus/20.htm |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=bibleapps.com}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2025}} Eastern Orthodoxy believe these qualify as icons, in that they were visible images depicting heavenly beings and, in the case of the cherubim, used to indirectly indicate God's presence above the Ark.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-12-17 |title=Icons in Orthodoxy: Frequent Questions and Answers |url=https://wongelforall.wordpress.com/2009/12/17/icons-in-orthodoxy-frequent-questions-and-answers/ |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=ወንጌል ለሁሉም Gospel For All |language=en}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2025}} | ||
In the [[Book of Numbers]]<ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|21:4–9}}</ref> it is written that God told Moses to make a bronze serpent, ''[[Nehushtan]]'', and hold it up, so that anyone looking at the snake would be healed of their snake bites. In John 3, Jesus refers to the same serpent, saying that he must be lifted up in the same way that the serpent was. [[John of Damascus]] also regarded the brazen serpent as an icon. Further, Jesus Christ himself is called the "image of the invisible God" in Colossians 1:15,<ref>{{bibleverse|Colossians|1:15}}</ref> and is therefore in one sense an icon. As people are also made in God's images, people are also considered to be living icons, and are therefore "[[Thurible|censed]]" along with painted icons during Orthodox prayer services. | In the [[Book of Numbers]]<ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|21:4–9}}</ref> it is written that God told Moses to make a bronze serpent, ''[[Nehushtan]]'', and hold it up, so that anyone looking at the snake would be healed of their snake bites. In John 3, Jesus refers to the same serpent, saying that he must be lifted up in the same way that the serpent was. [[John of Damascus]] also regarded the brazen serpent as an icon. Further, Jesus Christ himself is called the "image of the invisible God" in Colossians 1:15,<ref>{{bibleverse|Colossians|1:15}}</ref> and is therefore in one sense an icon. As people are also made in God's images, people are also considered to be living icons, and are therefore "[[Thurible|censed]]" along with painted icons during Orthodox prayer services. | ||
| Line 136: | Line 136: | ||
According to John of Damascus, anyone who tries to destroy icons "is the enemy of Christ, the Holy Mother of God and the saints, and is the defender of the Devil and his demons". This is because the theology behind icons is closely tied to the Incarnational theology of the humanity and divinity of Jesus, so that attacks on icons typically have the effect of undermining or attacking the Incarnation of Jesus himself as elucidated in the Ecumenical Councils. | According to John of Damascus, anyone who tries to destroy icons "is the enemy of Christ, the Holy Mother of God and the saints, and is the defender of the Devil and his demons". This is because the theology behind icons is closely tied to the Incarnational theology of the humanity and divinity of Jesus, so that attacks on icons typically have the effect of undermining or attacking the Incarnation of Jesus himself as elucidated in the Ecumenical Councils. | ||
[[Basil of Caesarea]], in his writing ''On the Holy Spirit'', says: "The honor paid to the image passes to the prototype". He also illustrates the concept by saying, "If I point to a statue of Caesar and ask you 'Who is that?', your answer would properly be, 'It is Caesar.' When you say such you do not mean that the stone itself is Caesar, but rather, the name and honor you ascribe to the statue passes over to the original, the archetype, Caesar himself."<ref>See also: {{cite book |last=Price |first=S. R. F. |title=Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor |edition=illustrated reprint |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1986 |pages=204–205}} Price paraphrases St. Basil, ''Homily'' 24: "on seeing an image of the king in the square, one does not allege that there are two kings". Veneration of the image venerates its original: a similar analogy is implicit in the images used for the [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Roman Imperial cult]]. It does not occur in the Gospels.</ref> This is thus the approach to icons; to kiss an icon of Jesus, in the Eastern Orthodox view, is to show love towards Jesus himself, not mere wood and paint making up the physical substance of the icon. Worship of the icon as somehow entirely separate from its prototype is expressly forbidden by the Seventh Ecumenical Council.<ref name="auto"/> | [[Basil of Caesarea]], in his writing ''On the Holy Spirit'', says: "The honor paid to the image passes to the prototype". He also illustrates the concept by saying, "If I point to a statue of Caesar and ask you 'Who is that?', your answer would properly be, 'It is Caesar.' When you say such you do not mean that the stone itself is Caesar, but rather, the name and honor you ascribe to the statue passes over to the original, the archetype, Caesar himself."<ref>See also: {{cite book |last=Price |first=S. R. F. |title=Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor |edition=illustrated reprint |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1986 |pages=204–205}} Price paraphrases St. Basil, ''Homily'' 24: "on seeing an image of the king in the square, one does not allege that there are two kings". Veneration of the image venerates its original: a similar analogy is implicit in the images used for the [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Roman Imperial cult]]. It does not occur in the Gospels.</ref> [[File:Young Girl in a Chapel.png|left|thumb|350 px|''Young Girl in a Chapel'' by [[Théodore Ralli|Théodore Jacques Ralli]], 1873-1895, kissing an icon following Greek tradition.]] This is thus the approach to icons; to kiss an icon of Jesus, in the Eastern Orthodox view, is to show love towards Jesus himself, not mere wood and paint making up the physical substance of the icon. Worship of the icon as somehow entirely separate from its prototype is expressly forbidden by the Seventh Ecumenical Council.<ref name="auto"/> | ||
Icons are often illuminated with a candle or jar of oil with a wick. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for oil lamps are preferred because they burn very cleanly, although other materials are sometimes used.) The illumination of religious images with lamps or candles is an ancient practice pre-dating Christianity. | Icons are often illuminated with a candle or jar of oil with a wick. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for oil lamps are preferred because they burn very cleanly, although other materials are sometimes used.) The illumination of religious images with lamps or candles is an ancient practice pre-dating Christianity. | ||
According to Fr. Les Bundy, "The Ecumenical Counciliar dogmatic decrees on icons refer, in fact, to all religious images including three-dimensional statues. Professor Sergios Verkhovskoi, the conservative professor of dogmatics at St. Vladimir’s Seminary forthrightly condemns as heretical anyone who declares statues as unorthodox or in any way canonically inferior to paintings."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bundy |first=Fr. Les |date=2017-02-06 |title=Orthodox Statues? |url=https://catalog.obitel-minsk.com/blog/2017/02/orthodox-statues |website=catalog.obitel-minsk.com}}</ref> Historically, the Orthodox Church has always approved of veneration of statues, for example, the statue of the Mother of God at Sokolica Monastery in Serbia,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sokolica Monastery |url=https://www.kosovo.net/esokolica.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.kosovo.net}}</ref> the devotional statues of St. Nil Stolbensky,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-24 |title=Nil Stolbensky |url=https://russianicons.wordpress.com/tag/nil-stolbensky/ |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=ICONS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION |language=en}}</ref> and those of St. Paraskeva.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Limited |first=Alamy |title=St.Paraskeva Pyatnitsa 17th century.Novgorod province popular in ancient russia.protector of travellers.tempera,gilding and levkas on carved wood Stock Photo - Alamy |url=https://www.alamy.com/stparaskeva-pyatnitsa-17th-centurynovgorod-province-popular-in-ancient-russiaprotector-of-travellerstemperagilding-and-levkas-on-carved-wood-image337509694.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.alamy.com |language=en}}</ref> | According to Fr. Les Bundy, "The Ecumenical Counciliar dogmatic decrees on icons refer, in fact, to all religious images including three-dimensional statues. Professor Sergios Verkhovskoi, the conservative professor of dogmatics at St. Vladimir’s Seminary forthrightly condemns as heretical anyone who declares statues as unorthodox or in any way canonically inferior to paintings."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bundy |first=Fr. Les |date=2017-02-06 |title=Orthodox Statues? |url=https://catalog.obitel-minsk.com/blog/2017/02/orthodox-statues |website=catalog.obitel-minsk.com}}</ref> Historically, the Orthodox Church has always approved of veneration of statues, for example, the statue of the Mother of God at Sokolica Monastery in Serbia,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sokolica Monastery |url=https://www.kosovo.net/esokolica.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.kosovo.net}}</ref> the devotional statues of St. Nil Stolbensky,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-24 |title=Nil Stolbensky |url=https://russianicons.wordpress.com/tag/nil-stolbensky/ |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=ICONS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION |language=en}}</ref> and those of St. Paraskeva.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Limited |first=Alamy |title=St.Paraskeva Pyatnitsa 17th century.Novgorod province popular in ancient russia.protector of travellers.tempera, gilding and levkas on carved wood Stock Photo - Alamy |url=https://www.alamy.com/stparaskeva-pyatnitsa-17th-centurynovgorod-province-popular-in-ancient-russiaprotector-of-travellerstemperagilding-and-levkas-on-carved-wood-image337509694.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.alamy.com |language=en}}</ref> | ||
<gallery widths="165px" heights="200px"> | <gallery widths="165px" heights="200px"> | ||
| Line 149: | Line 149: | ||
==Icon painting tradition by region== | ==Icon painting tradition by region== | ||
{{more citations needed section|date=September 2025}} | |||
===Byzantine Empire=== | ===Byzantine Empire=== | ||
{{see also|Byzantine art}} | {{see also|Byzantine art}} | ||
| Line 195: | Line 197: | ||
===Ukraine=== | ===Ukraine=== | ||
{{ | {{further|Icon painting in Ukraine}} | ||
During the period of [[Kievan Rus]], an indigenous school of icon painting developed in the lands of Ukraine, inspired by Byzantine examples. With the rise of [[Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia|Galicia-Volhynia]], a local school also developed in the area, influenced in its turn by Kyivan icons. Influence of Galician icon painting spread across the [[Carpathians]], reaching as far as [[ | During the period of [[Kievan Rus]], an indigenous school of icon painting developed in the lands of Ukraine, inspired by Byzantine examples. With the rise of [[Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia|Galicia-Volhynia]], a local school also developed in the area, influenced in its turn by Kyivan icons. Influence of Galician icon painting spread across the [[Carpathians]], reaching as far as [[Prešov]] in modern [[Slovakia]]. Some icons were painted by monks, but most were created by professional artists. In the 16th century, [[Lviv]] became the main centre of painting in Ukrainian lands, and by the middle of the next century Orthodox artists achieved prominent positions in the city's [[craft guild|painters' guild]]. Among notable icon painters of the area during that time was [[Ivan Rutkovych]], whose art demonstrated a strong tendency to [[realism (arts)|realism]]. | ||
Starting from the early 17th century, icon painting saw a revival in Central and Eastern Ukraine, supported both by the church and by the rising [[Cossack starshyna|Cossack elite]]. The strict Byzantine style prevalent in icons of the previous era gave way to the more expressive style of [[Ukrainian Baroque]]. Some icons created in the [[Cossack Hetmanate]] depict not only religious figures, but also civic rulers such as [[hetmans]], as well as members of their families. By the end of the 18th century icon gradually evolved into painting on biblical motives, as demonstrated in the works of [[Vladimir Borovikovsky|Volodymyr Borovykovsky]]. A new revival of this art form in Ukraine took place in the early 20th century under the influence of the school of [[Mykhailo Boychuk]], whose style influenced other painters, many of whom were active in the [[Ukrainian diaspora]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Icon|url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CC%5CIcon.htm|website=[[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]|access-date=2025-07-16}}</ref> | Starting from the early 17th century, icon painting saw a revival in Central and Eastern Ukraine, supported both by the church and by the rising [[Cossack starshyna|Cossack elite]]. The strict Byzantine style prevalent in icons of the previous era gave way to the more expressive style of [[Ukrainian Baroque]]. Some icons created in the [[Cossack Hetmanate]] depict not only religious figures, but also civic rulers such as [[hetmans]], as well as members of their families. By the end of the 18th century icon gradually evolved into painting on biblical motives, as demonstrated in the works of [[Vladimir Borovikovsky|Volodymyr Borovykovsky]]. A new revival of this art form in Ukraine took place in the early 20th century under the influence of the school of [[Mykhailo Boychuk]], whose style influenced other painters, many of whom were active in the [[Ukrainian diaspora]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Icon|url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CI%5CC%5CIcon.htm|website=[[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]|access-date=2025-07-16}}</ref> | ||
| Line 210: | Line 212: | ||
The Aleppo School was a school of icon-painting, founded by the priest [[Yusuf al-Musawwir]] (also known as Joseph the Painter) and active in [[Aleppo]], which was then a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]], between at least 1645<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Lyster |editor-first=William |title=The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Paul in Egypt |date=2008 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dismAQAAMAAJ |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page=267|isbn=9780300118476 }}</ref> and 1777.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Immerzeel |first=Mat |title=The Wall Paintings in the Church of Mar Elian at Homs: A 'Restoration Project' of a Nineteenth-century Palestinian Master |journal=Eastern Christian Art |date=2005 |volume=2 |url= https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=5d1096e7c2dca |page=157|doi=10.2143/ECA.2.0.2004557 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> | The Aleppo School was a school of icon-painting, founded by the priest [[Yusuf al-Musawwir]] (also known as Joseph the Painter) and active in [[Aleppo]], which was then a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]], between at least 1645<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Lyster |editor-first=William |title=The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Paul in Egypt |date=2008 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dismAQAAMAAJ |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page=267|isbn=9780300118476 }}</ref> and 1777.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Immerzeel |first=Mat |title=The Wall Paintings in the Church of Mar Elian at Homs: A 'Restoration Project' of a Nineteenth-century Palestinian Master |journal=Eastern Christian Art |date=2005 |volume=2 |url= https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=5d1096e7c2dca |page=157|doi=10.2143/ECA.2.0.2004557 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> | ||
===Svaneti=== | |||
[[File:Lamaria – Ushguli – 04.jpg|thumb|Icons depicting The Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ in the Svaneti style, located in the [[Lamaria Church]] of [[Ushguli]], Svaneti]] | |||
The Svaneti school of iconography emerged in the 13th century within monasteries of [[Svaneti]], Georgia. The icon style was localised to this region and characterised by simplified forms and exaggerated, rounded features, differing from the Byzantine style also popular in Medieval Georgia. <ref>https://orthodoxartsjournal.org/the-memory-keepers/</ref><ref>https://www.atinati.com/news/6740b005814d860038a31837</ref> | |||
==Western Christianity== | ==Western Christianity== | ||
| Line 218: | Line 224: | ||
Only in the 15th century did production of painted works of art begin to approach Eastern levels, supplemented by mass-produced imports from the [[Cretan School]]. In this century, the use of icon-like portraits in the West was enormously increased by the introduction of [[old master print]]s on paper, mostly [[woodcut]]s which were produced in vast numbers (although hardly any survive). They were mostly sold, hand-coloured, by churches, and the smallest sizes (often only an inch high) were affordable even by [[peasant]]s, who glued or pinned them straight onto a wall. | Only in the 15th century did production of painted works of art begin to approach Eastern levels, supplemented by mass-produced imports from the [[Cretan School]]. In this century, the use of icon-like portraits in the West was enormously increased by the introduction of [[old master print]]s on paper, mostly [[woodcut]]s which were produced in vast numbers (although hardly any survive). They were mostly sold, hand-coloured, by churches, and the smallest sizes (often only an inch high) were affordable even by [[peasant]]s, who glued or pinned them straight onto a wall. | ||
During the time of the [[Reformation]], the emergence of the [[Lutheran]] and the [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed]] traditions occurred. Lutherans favored sacred art, including the use of icons (cf. [[Lutheran art]]). On the other hand, the Reformed (Calvinists) were generally iconoclastic.<ref name="Lamport2017">{{cite book|last=Lamport|first=Mark A.|title=Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation|date=31 August 2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|language=English|isbn=9781442271593|page=138|quote=Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's ''theologia crucis''. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.}}</ref> At present, icons "play a role in Lutheran liturgical practice."<ref name="ATH2022">{{cite web |title=Images Within Lutheran Liturgical Living |url=https://allthehousehold.com/images-within-lutheran-liturgical-living/ |publisher=All The Household |access-date=13 June 2025 |date=27 July 2022}}</ref> The Lutheran breviary ''[[For All the Saints: A Prayer Book for and by the Church|For All the Saints]]'' is illustrated with several icons.<ref name="Schumacher2014">{{cite web |last1=Schumacher |first1=Frederick J. |title=A Lutheran Learns to Read and Write Icons |url=https://mcsletstalk.org/religion-and-the-arts/a-lutheran-learns-to-read-and-write-icons/ | During the time of the [[Reformation]], the emergence of the [[Lutheran]] and the [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed]] traditions occurred. Lutherans favored sacred art, including the use of icons (cf. [[Lutheran art]]). On the other hand, the Reformed (Calvinists) were generally iconoclastic.<ref name="Lamport2017">{{cite book|last=Lamport|first=Mark A.|title=Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation|date=31 August 2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|language=English|isbn=9781442271593|page=138|quote=Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's ''theologia crucis''. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.}}</ref> At present, icons "play a role in Lutheran liturgical practice."<ref name="ATH2022">{{cite web |title=Images Within Lutheran Liturgical Living |url=https://allthehousehold.com/images-within-lutheran-liturgical-living/ |publisher=All The Household |access-date=13 June 2025 |date=27 July 2022}}</ref> The Lutheran breviary ''[[For All the Saints: A Prayer Book for and by the Church|For All the Saints]]'' is illustrated with several icons.<ref name="Schumacher2014">{{cite web |last1=Schumacher |first1=Frederick J. |title=A Lutheran Learns to Read and Write Icons |work=Let's Talk |url=https://mcsletstalk.org/religion-and-the-arts/a-lutheran-learns-to-read-and-write-icons/ |access-date=13 June 2025 |date=30 January 2014}}</ref> | ||
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> | <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> | ||
| Line 226: | Line 232: | ||
File:Icon Cathedral 3.jpg|alt=Icon of the Melanesian Martyrs at Canterbury Cathedral (Anglican Communion)|Icon of the [[Melanesian Brotherhood]] martyrs at [[Canterbury Cathedral]] (Anglican Communion) | File:Icon Cathedral 3.jpg|alt=Icon of the Melanesian Martyrs at Canterbury Cathedral (Anglican Communion)|Icon of the [[Melanesian Brotherhood]] martyrs at [[Canterbury Cathedral]] (Anglican Communion) | ||
File:Chapkanov-Saint-Nicholas.jpg|A modern metal icon of [[Saint Nicholas]] by the Bulgarian artist Georgi 'Chapa' Chapkanov. This depiction differs radically from traditional Orthodox iconography. [[Legislative Council of the Falkland Islands|Gilbert House]], [[Stanley, Falkland Islands]]. | File:Chapkanov-Saint-Nicholas.jpg|A modern metal icon of [[Saint Nicholas]] by the Bulgarian artist Georgi 'Chapa' Chapkanov. This depiction differs radically from traditional Orthodox iconography. [[Legislative Council of the Falkland Islands|Gilbert House]], [[Stanley, Falkland Islands]]. | ||
File:Mariagårdens kapell, Norrtälje kyrka.jpg|Icons surround the altar of the [[Lady chapel|Lady Chapel]] of [[:sv:Norrtälje kyrka|Norrtälje Evangelical-Lutheran Church]] in Sweden | |||
File:Mariagårdens kapell, Norrtälje kyrka (detalj).jpg|Icons at the base of the [[altar cross]] of the [[Lady chapel|Marian Chapel]] of [[:sv:Norrtälje kyrka|Norrtälje Evangelical-Lutheran Church]], part of the [[Archdiocese of Uppsala]] | |||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
===Catholic view=== | ===Roman Catholic view=== | ||
The [[Catholic Church]] accepted the decrees of the [[Iconodulism|iconodule]] [[Seventh ecumenical council|Seventh Ecumenical Council]] regarding images. There is some minor difference, however, in the Catholic attitude to images from that of the Orthodox. Following [[Gregory the Great]], Catholics emphasize the role of images as the {{lang|la|[[Biblia pauperum|Biblia Pauperum]]}}, the "Bible of the Poor", from which those who could not read could nonetheless learn.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ArtWay.eu |url=https://www.artway.eu/content.php?id=2258&lang=en&action=show |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=www.artway.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Karen |date=2010-05-12 |title=Biblia Pauperum |url=https://owlinthepulpit.wordpress.com/2010/05/12/biblia-pauperum/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=the owl in the pulpit |language=en}}</ref> | The [[Catholic Church]] accepted the decrees of the [[Iconodulism|iconodule]] [[Seventh ecumenical council|Seventh Ecumenical Council]] regarding images. There is some minor difference, however, in the Catholic attitude to images from that of the Orthodox. Following [[Gregory the Great]], Catholics emphasize the role of images as the {{lang|la|[[Biblia pauperum|Biblia Pauperum]]}}, the "Bible of the Poor", from which those who could not read could nonetheless learn.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ArtWay.eu |url=https://www.artway.eu/content.php?id=2258&lang=en&action=show |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=www.artway.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Karen |date=2010-05-12 |title=Biblia Pauperum |url=https://owlinthepulpit.wordpress.com/2010/05/12/biblia-pauperum/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=the owl in the pulpit |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| Line 234: | Line 242: | ||
===Lutheran view=== | ===Lutheran view=== | ||
[[File:Štítnik12.jpg|thumb|Icons adorn the Lutheran church in [[Štítnik]], Slovakia]] | |||
In the Lutheran tradition, "icons’ functions are meant to express the theological teaching of the church and to be used as a reminder of such teachings." Icons are often placed on the [[home altar]]s of Lutheran households to turn the mind toward God.<ref name="ATH2022"/> | In the Lutheran tradition, "icons’ functions are meant to express the theological teaching of the church and to be used as a reminder of such teachings." Icons are often placed on the [[home altar]]s of Lutheran households to turn the mind toward God.<ref name="ATH2022"/> | ||
| Line 242: | Line 251: | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Analogion]] | * [[Analogion]] | ||
* [[Christian symbolism | * [[Christian symbolism]] | ||
* [[Cult image]] | * [[Cult image]] | ||
* [[Holy card]] | * [[Holy card]] | ||
* [[Icon of Christ of Latomos]] | * [[Icon of Christ of Latomos]] | ||
* [[Iconoclasm]] | * [[Iconoclasm]] | ||
* [[Murti]] | |||
* [[Orans]] | * [[Orans]] | ||
* [[Panagia Ierosolymitissa]] | * [[Panagia Ierosolymitissa]] | ||
| Line 282: | Line 290: | ||
**[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/orthodoxy/rules-of-piety/concerning-the-veneration-of-icons/ "Concerning the Veneration of Icons"], from Church of the Nativity | **[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/orthodoxy/rules-of-piety/concerning-the-veneration-of-icons/ "Concerning the Veneration of Icons"], from Church of the Nativity | ||
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080131084350/http://www.antiochian.org/1103744287 "Holy Icons: Theology in Color"], from Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese | *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080131084350/http://www.antiochian.org/1103744287 "Holy Icons: Theology in Color"], from Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese | ||
*[ | *[https://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/Art.html "Icons of Mount Athos"], from ''Macedonian Heritage'' | ||
*[http://www.goarch.org/resources/clipart/ "Icons"], from Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America | *[http://www.goarch.org/resources/clipart/ "Icons"], from Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America | ||
*[ | *[https://www.iconiq.co.il iconiq - אייקוניק] | ||
*[ | *[https://www.icon-art.info/gallery.php?lng=en ''Icon Art''] – gallery of icons, murals, and mosaics (mostly Russian) from the 11th to the 20th century | ||
*[ | *[https://www.christianityart.store/collections/orthodox-icons ''Orthodox icons''] – Orthodox icons | ||
*[https://www.eikonografos.com ''Eikonografos''] – collection of Byzantine icons | |||
*[https://www.pallasweb.com/deesis ''My World of Byzantium''] by Bob Atchison, on the [[Deësis]] icon of Christ at Hagia Sophia, and four galleries of other icons | |||
{{Byzantine Empire topics|state=expanded}} | {{Byzantine Empire topics|state=expanded}} | ||