Imhotep: Difference between revisions

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|name2 = <hiero>M18-G17-R4</hiero>
|name2 = <hiero>M18-G17-R4</hiero>
|name2 transcription = ''Jj m ḥtp''
|name2 transcription = ''Jj m ḥtp''
|name3 = <hiero>M17-M17-G17-R4</hiero>
|name3 = <hiero>M17-M17-G17-R4:X1*Q3</hiero>
|name3 transcription = ''Jj m ḥtp''
|name3 transcription = ''Jj m ḥtp''
|name4 = <hiero>M17-M17-G17-R4</hiero>
|name4 transcription = ''Jj m ḥtp''
|Greek expanded title = [[Manetho]] variants:
|Greek expanded title = [[Manetho]] variants:
|Greek = {{ubl|[[Sextus Julius Africanus|Africanus]]: Imouthes|[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]]: missing|Eusebius,&nbsp;&nbsp;AV:&nbsp;&nbsp;missing}}
|Greek = {{ubl|[[Sextus Julius Africanus|Africanus]]: Imouthes|[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]]: missing|Eusebius,&nbsp;&nbsp;AV:&nbsp;&nbsp;missing}}
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'''Imhotep''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|m|ˈ|h|əʊ|t|ɛ|p}};<ref name="Collins">{{cite web |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/imhotep?showCookiePolicy=true |title=Imhotep |access-date=September 25, 2014 |work=Collins Dictionary}}</ref> {{langx|egy|ỉỉ-m-ḥtp}} "(the one who) comes in peace";<ref name="Ranke 1935 9">{{cite book |last1=Ranke |first1=Hermann |year=1935 |title=Die Ägyptischen Personennamen |trans-title=Egyptian Personal Names |volume=1: Verzeichnis der Namen |page=9 |language=de |publisher=J. J. Augustin |place=Glückstadt |url=http://gizamedia.rc.fas.harvard.edu/images/MFA-images/Giza/GizaImage/full/library/ranke_personennamen_1.pdf |access-date=24 July 2020}}</ref> {{Floruit|late 27th century BC}}) was an [[Ancient Egyptians|Egyptian]] chancellor to the King [[Djoser]], possible architect of [[Pyramid of Djoser|Djoser's step pyramid]], and [[Clergy_of_ancient_Egypt#Hierarchy |high priest]] of the sun god [[Ra]] at [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]. Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3,000&nbsp;years following his death, he was gradually glorified and [[Deifying|deified]].
'''Imhotep''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|m|ˈ|h|əʊ|t|ɛ|p}};<ref name="Collins">{{cite web |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/imhotep?showCookiePolicy=true |title=Imhotep |access-date=September 25, 2014 |work=Collins Dictionary}}</ref> {{langx|egy|ỉỉ-m-ḥtp}} "(the one who) comes in peace";<ref name="Ranke 1935 9">{{cite book |last1=Ranke |first1=Hermann |year=1935 |title=Die Ägyptischen Personennamen |trans-title=Egyptian Personal Names |volume=1: Verzeichnis der Namen |page=9 |language=de |publisher=J. J. Augustin |place=Glückstadt |url=http://gizamedia.rc.fas.harvard.edu/images/MFA-images/Giza/GizaImage/full/library/ranke_personennamen_1.pdf |access-date=24 July 2020}}</ref> {{Floruit|late 27th century BC}}) was an [[Ancient Egyptians|Egyptian]] chancellor to the King [[Djoser]], possible architect of [[Pyramid of Djoser|Djoser's step pyramid]], and [[Clergy_of_ancient_Egypt#Hierarchy |high priest]] of the sun god [[Ra]] at [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]. Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3,000&nbsp;years following his death, he was gradually glorified and [[Deifying|deified]].


Traditions from long after Imhotep's death treated him as a great author of [[Sebayt|wisdom texts]]<ref name=Wildung-1977>{{cite book |first=D. |last=Wildung |year=1977 |title=Egyptian Saints: Deification in pharaonic Egypt|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9169-1 |page=34}}</ref> and especially as a physician.<ref>{{cite book |first=William |last=Osler |year=2004 |title=The Evolution of Modern Medicine|publisher=Kessinger |page=12}}</ref><ref name="Musso2005">{{cite book |last=Musso |first=C. G. |year=2005 |title=Imhotep: The dean among the ancient Egyptian physicians}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willerson |first1=J. T. |last2=Teaff |first2=R. |year=1995 |title=Egyptian Contributions to Cardiovascular Medicine |journal=Texas Heart Institute Journal |page=194}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Full journal name, volume & issue numbers, opt. DOI, etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Roger |last=Highfield |date=10 May 2007 |title=How Imhotep gave us medicine |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |place=London, UK |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Herbowski |first=Leszek |year=2013 |title=The maze of the cerebrospinal fluid discovery |journal=Anatomy Research International |volume=2013 |article-number=596027 |page=5 |oclc=733290677 |lccn=2011243887 |doi=10.1155/2013/596027 |pmid=24396600 |pmc=3874314 |doi-access=free }}</ref> No text from his lifetime mentions these capacities and no text mentions his name in the first 1,200&nbsp;years following his death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Teeter |first=E. |year=2011 |title=Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt |page=96}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref name=Baud-2002>{{cite book |last=Baud |first=M. |year=2002 |title=Djéser et la IIIe dynastie |trans-title=Djoser and the Third Dynasty |page=125 |language=French}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref> It's possible that Imhotep was mentioned in the [[Westcar Papyrus]], which has been dated to the [[Hyksos period]], but states that it is written in classical [[Egyptian language#Middle Egyptian|Middle Egyptian]], likely around the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|13th Dynasty]]. However, the section containing Imhotep and Djoser is mostly missing, and only the ending to the story remains, where Djoser is mentioned.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvqc6j1s |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-30584-7 |edition=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctvqc6j1s |jstor=j.ctvqc6j1s }}</ref>{{page number needed|date=July 2025}}<ref name="AdEr5">Adolf Erman: ''Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar''. In: ''Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen''. Heft V, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1890. page 10 – 12.</ref>
Traditions from long after Imhotep's death treated him as a great author of [[Sebayt|wisdom texts]]<ref name=Wildung-1977>{{cite book |first=D. |last=Wildung |year=1977 |title=Egyptian Saints: Deification in pharaonic Egypt|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9169-1 |page=34}}</ref> and especially as a physician.<ref>{{cite book |first=William |last=Osler |year=2004 |title=The Evolution of Modern Medicine|publisher=Kessinger |page=12}}</ref><ref name="Musso2005">{{cite book |last=Musso |first=C. G. |year=2005 |title=Imhotep: The dean among the ancient Egyptian physicians}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willerson |first1=J. T. |last2=Teaff |first2=R. |year=1995 |title=Egyptian Contributions to Cardiovascular Medicine |journal=Texas Heart Institute Journal |page=194}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Full journal name, volume & issue numbers, opt. DOI, etc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Roger |last=Highfield |date=10 May 2007 |title=How Imhotep gave us medicine |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |place=London, UK |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3293164/How-Imhotep-gave-us-medicine.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Herbowski |first=Leszek |year=2013 |title=The maze of the cerebrospinal fluid discovery |journal=Anatomy Research International |volume=2013 |article-number=596027 |page=5 |oclc=733290677 |lccn=2011243887 |doi=10.1155/2013/596027 |pmid=24396600 |pmc=3874314 |doi-access=free }}</ref> No extant text from his lifetime mentions these capacities, and none mention his name in the first 1,200&nbsp;years following his death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Teeter |first=E. |year=2011 |title=Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt |page=96}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref><ref name=Baud-2002>{{cite book |last=Baud |first=M. |year=2002 |title=Djéser et la IIIe dynastie |trans-title=Djoser and the Third Dynasty |page=125 |language=French}}{{full citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Publisher name, publ. place, opt. ISBN etc.}}</ref> The [[Westcar Papyrus]] of the [[Hyksos period]], written in classical [[Egyptian language#Middle Egyptian|Middle Egyptian]] (likely around the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|13th Dynasty]]), contains [[Westcar_Papyrus#Story_No._1|a story about an official performing a miracle for Djoser]], possibly Imhotep. However, this section is badly damaged and no mention of this character's name survived.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvqc6j1s |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-30584-7 |edition=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctvqc6j1s |jstor=j.ctvqc6j1s }}</ref>{{page number needed|date=July 2025}}<ref name="AdEr5">Adolf Erman: ''Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar''. In: ''Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen''. Heft V, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1890. page 10 – 12.</ref>


Apart from the three short contemporary inscriptions that establish him as chancellor to the Pharaoh, the first surviving text to refer to Imhotep dates to the time of [[Amenhotep III]] ({{circa|1391–1353&nbsp;BC}}). It is addressed to the owner of a tomb and reads:
Apart from the two short contemporary inscriptions that establish him as chancellor to the Pharaoh, the first surviving text to name Imhotep dates to the time of [[Amenhotep III]] ({{circa|1391–1353&nbsp;BC}}). It is addressed to the owner of a tomb and reads:


{{Blockquote|text=The [[Priest#Ancient Egypt|wab-priest]] may give offerings to your [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|ka]]. The wab-priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep with the remains of the water bowl. |source=Wildung (1977)<ref name=Wildung-1977/>}}
{{Blockquote|text=The [[Priest#Ancient Egypt|wab-priest]] may give offerings to your [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|ka]]. The wab-priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep with the remains of the water bowl. |source=Wildung (1977)<ref name=Wildung-1977/>}}
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  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myPvAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29  
  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myPvAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29  
}}
}}
</ref> The center of his cult was in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. The location of his tomb remains unknown, despite efforts to find it.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lay of the Harper |website=Reshafim.org.il |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/harpers_lay.htm |access-date=2015-06-23}}</ref> The consensus is {{citation needed|date=March 2024}}that it is hidden somewhere at [[Saqqara]].
</ref> The center of his cult was in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. The location of his tomb remains unknown, despite efforts to find it.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lay of the Harper |website=Reshafim.org.il |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/harpers_lay.htm |access-date=2015-06-23}}</ref>


==Historicity==
==Historicity==
[[File:Imhotep JE 49889.png|thumb|left|200px|Drawing of statue JE 49889 base inscription, which mentions Imhotep]]
[[File:Imhotep JE 49889.png|thumb|left|200px|Drawing of statue JE 49889 base inscription, which mentions Imhotep]]
Imhotep's [[historicity]] is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues {{nowrap|(Cairo JE 49889)}} and also by a [[Graffito (archaeology)|graffito]] on the enclosure wall surrounding [[Sekhemkhet]]'s [[Buried Pyramid | unfinished step pyramid]].<ref name=Malek>{{cite book |first=Jaromir |last=Malek |year=2002 |article=The Old Kingdom |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Shaw |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=paperback |pages=92–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Kahl |date=2000 |article=Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt|isbn=0195138228 |editor-first=Donald |editor-last=Redford |edition=1st |volume=2 |page=592}}</ref> The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of King Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.<ref name=Malek/>
Imhotep's [[historicity]] is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues {{nowrap|(Cairo JE 49889)}} and also by a [[Graffito (archaeology)|graffito]] on the enclosure wall surrounding [[Sekhemkhet]]'s [[Buried Pyramid | unfinished step pyramid]].<ref name=Malek>{{cite book |first=Jaromir |last=Malek |year=2002 |article=The Old Kingdom |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Shaw |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=paperback |pages=92–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Kahl |date=2000 |article=Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt|isbn=0195138228 |editor-first=Donald |editor-last=Redford |edition=1st |volume=2 |page=592 |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of King Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.<ref name=Malek/>


Imhotep held the ambiguous title ''bity sensen'' or ''bity senwy'', unique in ancient Egyptian history. This literally translates as "the King of Lower Egypt, the two brothers", and could be interpreted to mean that Imhotep might be twin brother of Pharaoh, which would explain his high position; with no known individuals with similar titles, however, interpretation remains highly speculative.<ref>Naunton, Chris (2018). ''Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. p.&nbsp;44. {{ISBN|978-0500051993}}.</ref> If not a blood relative, he might have been the King's confidant or childhood friend.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naunton |first=Chris |title=Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-500-77451-9 |page=44}}</ref>
Imhotep held the ambiguous title ''bity sensen'' or ''bity senwy'', unique in ancient Egyptian history. This literally translates as "the King of Lower Egypt, the two brothers", and could be interpreted to mean that Imhotep might have been twin brother of Pharaoh, which would explain his high position; with no known individuals with similar titles, however, interpretation remains highly speculative.<ref>Naunton, Chris (2018). ''Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. p.&nbsp;44, e-book ed.. {{ISBN|978-0500051993}}.</ref> If not a blood relative, he might have been the King's confidant or childhood friend.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naunton |first=Chris |title=Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-500-77451-9 |page=44, e-book ed.}}</ref>


===Architecture and engineering===
===Architecture and engineering===
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The Upper Egyptian [[Famine Stela]], which dates from the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic period]] (305–30&nbsp;BC), bears an inscription containing a legend about a famine lasting seven years during the reign of [[Djoser]]. Imhotep is credited with having been instrumental in ending it. One of his priests explained the connection between the god [[Khnum]] and the rise of the [[Nile]] to the Pharaoh, who then had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him, promising to end the drought.<ref>{{cite web |title=The famine stele on the island of Sehel |publisher=Reshafim.org.il |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/famine_stele.htm |access-date=2015-06-23}}</ref>
The Upper Egyptian [[Famine Stela]], which dates from the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic period]] (305–30&nbsp;BC), bears an inscription containing a legend about a famine lasting seven years during the reign of [[Djoser]]. Imhotep is credited with having been instrumental in ending it. One of his priests explained the connection between the god [[Khnum]] and the rise of the [[Nile]] to the Pharaoh, who then had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him, promising to end the drought.<ref>{{cite web |title=The famine stele on the island of Sehel |publisher=Reshafim.org.il |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/famine_stele.htm |access-date=2015-06-23}}</ref>


A [[Demotic (Egyptian)|demotic]] papyrus from the temple of [[Tebtunis]], dating to the 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;AD, preserves a long story about Imhotep.<ref>{{cite conference |author-link=Kim Ryholt |first=Kim |last=Ryholt |year=2009 |title=The Life of Imhotep? |conference=<!-- Actes du -->IXe Congrès International des Études Démotiques |editor1-first=G. |editor1-last=Widmer |editor2-first=D. |editor2-last=Devauchelle |series=Bibliothèque d'étude |volume=147 |place=Le Caire, Egypt |publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale |pages=305–315}}</ref> The Pharaoh Djoser plays a prominent role in the story, which also mentions Imhotep's family; his father the god Ptah, his mother [[Khereduankh]], and his younger sister [[Renpetneferet]]. At one point Djoser desires Renpetneferet, and Imhotep disguises himself and tries to rescue her. The text also refers to the royal tomb of Djoser. Part of the legend includes an anachronistic battle between the Old Kingdom and the Assyrian armies where Imhotep fights an [[Assyria]]n sorceress in a duel of magic.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Kim Ryholt |first=Kim |last=Ryholt |chapter=The Assyrian invasion of Egypt in Egyptian literary tradition |title=Assyria and Beyond |publisher=Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten |year=2004 |isbn=9062583113 |page=501}}</ref>
A [[Demotic Egyptian script|demotic]] papyrus from the temple of [[Tebtunis]], dating to the 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;AD, preserves a long story about Imhotep.<ref>{{cite conference |author-link=Kim Ryholt |first=Kim |last=Ryholt |year=2009 |title=The Life of Imhotep? |conference=<!-- Actes du -->IXe Congrès International des Études Démotiques |editor1-first=G. |editor1-last=Widmer |editor2-first=D. |editor2-last=Devauchelle |series=Bibliothèque d'étude |volume=147 |place=Le Caire, Egypt |publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale |pages=305–315}}</ref> The Pharaoh Djoser plays a prominent role in the story, which also mentions Imhotep's family; his father the god Ptah, his mother [[Khereduankh]], and his younger sister [[Renpetneferet]]. At one point Djoser desires Renpetneferet, and Imhotep disguises himself and tries to rescue her. The text also refers to the royal tomb of Djoser. Part of the legend includes an anachronistic battle between the Old Kingdom and the Assyrian armies where Imhotep fights an [[Assyria]]n sorceress in a duel of magic.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Kim Ryholt |first=Kim |last=Ryholt |chapter=The Assyrian invasion of Egypt in Egyptian literary tradition |title=Assyria and Beyond |publisher=Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten |year=2004 |isbn=9062583113 |page=501}}</ref>


As an instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep's idealized image lasted well into the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]]. In the Ptolemaic period, the Egyptian priest and historian [[Manetho]] credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, although he was not the first to actually build with stone. Stonewalling, flooring, [[Lintel (architecture)|lintels]], and jambs had appeared sporadically during the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Archaic Period]], even though it is true that a building the size of the step pyramid made entirely out of stone had never before been constructed. Before Djoser, Kings were buried in [[mastaba]] tombs.
As an instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep's idealized image lasted well into the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]]. In the Ptolemaic period, the Egyptian priest and historian [[Manetho]] credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, although he was not the first to actually build with stone. Stonewalling, flooring, [[Lintel (architecture)|lintels]], and jambs had appeared sporadically during the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Archaic Period]], even though it is true that a building the size of the step pyramid made entirely out of stone had never before been constructed. Before Djoser, Kings were buried in [[mastaba]] tombs.
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[[Egyptologist]] [[James Peter Allen]] states that "The Greeks equated him with their own god of medicine, [[Asklepios]], although ironically, there is no evidence that Imhotep himself was a physician."<ref name="Allen">{{cite book |last=Allen |first=James Peter |year=2005 |title=The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300107289 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNbVl5LOjHUC&q=+Imhotep |access-date=August 17, 2016}}</ref>
[[Egyptologist]] [[James Peter Allen]] states that "The Greeks equated him with their own god of medicine, [[Asklepios]], although ironically, there is no evidence that Imhotep himself was a physician."<ref name="Allen">{{cite book |last=Allen |first=James Peter |year=2005 |title=The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300107289 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNbVl5LOjHUC&q=+Imhotep |access-date=August 17, 2016}}</ref>


In his Pulitzer-prize winning “biography” of cancer – ''[[The Emperor of All Maladies]]'' – [[Siddhartha Mukherjee]] cites the oldest identified written diagnosis of cancer to Imhotep.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Siddhartha |title=The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer |publisher=Fourth Estate Ltd; First Edition |date=29 September 2011 |isbn=9780007250929}}</ref> Unfortunately, the therapy Imhotep laconically prescribed for it would be equally recognizable for millennia: “There is none”.
In his Pulitzer-prize winning “biography” of cancer – ''[[The Emperor of All Maladies]]'' – [[Siddhartha Mukherjee]] cites the oldest identified written [[Cancer research|diagnosis of cancer]] to Imhotep.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Siddhartha |title=The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer |publisher=Fourth Estate Ltd; First Edition |date=29 September 2011 |isbn=9780007250929}}</ref> Unfortunately, the therapy Imhotep laconically prescribed for it would be equally recognizable for millennia: “There is none”.


==In popular culture==
==In popular culture==
[[File:An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine. Wellcome V0018149.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Board]]: An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine, {{Circa|1912}}]]
[[File:An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine. Wellcome V0018149.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Board]]: An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine, {{Circa|1912}}]]
[[Imhotep (The Mummy)|Imhotep's]] name is shared by the antagonist of the 1932 film ''[[The Mummy (1932 film)|The Mummy]]'',<ref>{{cite web |last=Reid |first=Danny |date=24 April 2014 |title=''The Mummy'' (1932) |series=Review, with Boris Karloff and David Manners |website=Pre-Code.com |url=http://pre-code.com/mummy-1932-review-boris-karloff |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref> its 1999 [[The Mummy (1999 film)|remake]], and that film's [[The Mummy Returns|2001 sequel]].<ref name="NYT">{{cite news |last=Holden |first=Stephen |title=Sarcophagus, be gone: Night of the living undead |via=NYTimes.com |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9E06E0D7103CF934A35756C0A96F958260 |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref> He features in the manga ''[[Im: Great Priest Imhotep]]'' as the protagonist.
[[Imhotep (The Mummy)|Imhotep's]] name is shared by the antagonist of the 1932 film ''[[The Mummy (1932 film)|The Mummy]]'', along with its [[The Mummy (1999 film)|1999 remake]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Reid |first=Danny |date=24 April 2014 |title=''The Mummy'' (1932) |series=Review, with Boris Karloff and David Manners |website=Pre-Code.com |url=http://pre-code.com/mummy-1932-review-boris-karloff |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
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[[Category:Ancient Egyptian architects]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian architects]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian engineers]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian engineers]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian physicians]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian medical doctors]]
[[Category:Deified ancient Egyptian people]]
[[Category:Deified ancient Egyptian people]]
[[Category:Deified men]]
[[Category:Deified men]]

Latest revision as of 09:56, 31 March 2026

This article is about the ancient Egyptian official. For other uses, see Imhotep (disambiguation).

Imhotep
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File:Imhotep, donated by Padisu MET DP164134.jpg
Statuette of Imhotep, 664–30 BC
Burial placeSaqqara (probable)
Other namesAsclepius (name in Greek) Imouthes (also name in Greek)
Occupationchancellor to the King Djoser and High Priest of Ra
Years activec. 27th century BC
Known forBeing the architect of Djoser's step pyramid
RelativesDjoser (possible brother; disputed)

Template:Infobox hieroglyphs

Imhotep (/ɪmˈhoʊtɛp/;[1] Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. "(the one who) comes in peace";[2] fl. late 27th century BC) was an Egyptian chancellor to the King Djoser, possible architect of Djoser's step pyramid, and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3,000 years following his death, he was gradually glorified and deified.

Traditions from long after Imhotep's death treated him as a great author of wisdom texts[3] and especially as a physician.[4][5][6][7][8] No extant text from his lifetime mentions these capacities, and none mention his name in the first 1,200 years following his death.[9][10] The Westcar Papyrus of the Hyksos period, written in classical Middle Egyptian (likely around the 13th Dynasty), contains a story about an official performing a miracle for Djoser, possibly Imhotep. However, this section is badly damaged and no mention of this character's name survived.[11]Template:Page number needed[12]

Apart from the two short contemporary inscriptions that establish him as chancellor to the Pharaoh, the first surviving text to name Imhotep dates to the time of Amenhotep III (c. 1391–1353 BC). It is addressed to the owner of a tomb and reads:

The wab-priest may give offerings to your ka. The wab-priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep with the remains of the water bowl.

— Wildung (1977)[3]

It appears that this libation to Imhotep was done regularly, as they are attested on papyri associated with statues of Imhotep until the Late Period (c. 664–332 BC). Wildung (1977)[3] explains the origin of this cult as a slow evolution of intellectuals' memory of Imhotep, from his death onward. Gardiner finds the cult of Imhotep during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1077 BC) sufficiently distinct from the usual offerings made to other commoners that the epithet "demigod" is likely justified to describe his veneration.[13]

The first references to the healing abilities of Imhotep occur from the Thirtieth Dynasty (c. 380–343 BC) onward, some 2,200 years after his death.[10]: 127 [3]: 44 

Imhotep is among fewer than a dozen non-royal Egyptians who were deified after their deaths.[14][15] The center of his cult was in Memphis. The location of his tomb remains unknown, despite efforts to find it.[16]

Historicity

File:Imhotep JE 49889.png
Drawing of statue JE 49889 base inscription, which mentions Imhotep

Imhotep's historicity is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues (Cairo JE 49889) and also by a graffito on the enclosure wall surrounding Sekhemkhet's unfinished step pyramid.[17][18] The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of King Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.[17]

Imhotep held the ambiguous title bity sensen or bity senwy, unique in ancient Egyptian history. This literally translates as "the King of Lower Egypt, the two brothers", and could be interpreted to mean that Imhotep might have been twin brother of Pharaoh, which would explain his high position; with no known individuals with similar titles, however, interpretation remains highly speculative.[19] If not a blood relative, he might have been the King's confidant or childhood friend.[20]

Architecture and engineering

File:Sakkara, la pyramide LCCN2017656975.jpg
The step pyramid of Djoser
Main article: Ancient Egyptian architecture

Imhotep was one of the chief officials of the Pharaoh Djoser. Concurring with much later legends, Egyptologists credit him with the design and construction of the Pyramid of Djoser, a step pyramid at Saqqara built during the 3rd Dynasty.[21] He may also have been responsible for the first known use of stone columns to support a building.[22] Despite these later attestations, the pharaonic Egyptians themselves never credited Imhotep as the designer of the stepped pyramid, nor with the invention of stone architecture.[23]

Deification

God of medicine

Template:Infobox deity Template:Ancient Egyptian religion Two thousand years after his death, Imhotep's status had risen to that of a god of medicine and healing. Eventually, Imhotep was equated with Thoth, the god of architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and patron of scribes: Imhotep's cult was merged with that of his own former tutelary god.

He was revered in the region of Thebes as the "brother" of Amenhotep, son of Hapu – another deified architect – in the temples dedicated to Thoth.[24][25]: v3, p104  Because of his association with health, the Greeks equated Imhotep with Asklepios, their own god of health who also was a deified mortal.[26]

According to myth, Imhotep's mother was a mortal named Khereduankh, she too being eventually revered as a demi-goddess as the daughter of Banebdjedet.[27] Alternatively, since Imhotep was known as the "Son of Ptah",[25]: v?, p106 [volume & issue needed] his mother was sometimes claimed to be Sekhmet, the patron of Upper Egypt whose consort was Ptah.

Post-Alexander period

The Upper Egyptian Famine Stela, which dates from the Ptolemaic period (305–30 BC), bears an inscription containing a legend about a famine lasting seven years during the reign of Djoser. Imhotep is credited with having been instrumental in ending it. One of his priests explained the connection between the god Khnum and the rise of the Nile to the Pharaoh, who then had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him, promising to end the drought.[28]

A demotic papyrus from the temple of Tebtunis, dating to the 2nd century AD, preserves a long story about Imhotep.[29] The Pharaoh Djoser plays a prominent role in the story, which also mentions Imhotep's family; his father the god Ptah, his mother Khereduankh, and his younger sister Renpetneferet. At one point Djoser desires Renpetneferet, and Imhotep disguises himself and tries to rescue her. The text also refers to the royal tomb of Djoser. Part of the legend includes an anachronistic battle between the Old Kingdom and the Assyrian armies where Imhotep fights an Assyrian sorceress in a duel of magic.[30]

As an instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep's idealized image lasted well into the Roman period. In the Ptolemaic period, the Egyptian priest and historian Manetho credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, although he was not the first to actually build with stone. Stonewalling, flooring, lintels, and jambs had appeared sporadically during the Archaic Period, even though it is true that a building the size of the step pyramid made entirely out of stone had never before been constructed. Before Djoser, Kings were buried in mastaba tombs.

Medicine

Egyptologist James Peter Allen states that "The Greeks equated him with their own god of medicine, Asklepios, although ironically, there is no evidence that Imhotep himself was a physician."[31]

In his Pulitzer-prize winning “biography” of cancer – The Emperor of All Maladies – Siddhartha Mukherjee cites the oldest identified written diagnosis of cancer to Imhotep.[32] Unfortunately, the therapy Imhotep laconically prescribed for it would be equally recognizable for millennia: “There is none”.

File:An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine. Wellcome V0018149.jpg
Ernest Board: An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine, c. 1912

Imhotep's name is shared by the antagonist of the 1932 film The Mummy, along with its 1999 remake.[33]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Imhotep". Collins Dictionary. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
  2. ↑ Ranke, Hermann (1935). Die Ägyptischen Personennamen [Egyptian Personal Names] (PDF) (in German). 1: Verzeichnis der Namen. Glückstadt: J. J. Augustin. p. 9. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Wildung, D. (1977). Egyptian Saints: Deification in pharaonic Egypt. New York University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8147-9169-1.
  4. ↑ Osler, William (2004). The Evolution of Modern Medicine. Kessinger. p. 12.
  5. ↑ Musso, C. G. (2005). Imhotep: The dean among the ancient Egyptian physicians.[full citation needed]
  6. ↑ Willerson, J. T.; Teaff, R. (1995). "Egyptian Contributions to Cardiovascular Medicine". Texas Heart Institute Journal: 194.[full citation needed]
  7. ↑ Highfield, Roger (10 May 2007). "How Imhotep gave us medicine". The Telegraph. London, UK. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.
  8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
  9. ↑ Teeter, E. (2011). Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt. p. 96.[full citation needed]
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Baud, M. (2002). Djéser et la IIIe dynastie [Djoser and the Third Dynasty] (in French). p. 125.[full citation needed]
  11. ↑ Ancient Egyptian Literature (1 ed.). University of California Press. 2019. doi:10.2307/j.ctvqc6j1s. ISBN 978-0-520-30584-7. JSTOR j.ctvqc6j1s.
  12. ↑ Adolf Erman: Die Märchen des Papyrus Westcar I. Einleitung und Commentar. In: Mitteilungen aus den Orientalischen Sammlungen. Heft V, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1890. page 10 – 12.
  13. ↑ Hurry, Jamieson B. (2014) [1926]. Imhotep: The Egyptian god of medicine (reprint ed.). Oxford, UK: Traffic Output. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-404-13285-9.
  14. ↑ Troche, Julia (2021). Death, Power and Apotheosis in Ancient Egypt: The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
  15. ↑ Albrecht, Felix; Feldmeier, Reinhard, eds. (2014). The Divine Father: Religious and philosophical concepts of divine parenthood in antiquity (e-book ed.). Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, Massachusetts: Brill. p. 29. ISBN 978-90-04-26477-9.
  16. ↑ "Lay of the Harper". Reshafim.org.il. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Malek, Jaromir (2002). "The Old Kingdom". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (paperback ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 92–93.
  18. ↑ Kahl, J. (2000). "Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty". In Redford, Donald (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 2 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 592. ISBN 0195138228.
  19. ↑ Naunton, Chris (2018). Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 44, e-book ed.. ISBN 978-0500051993.
  20. ↑ Naunton, Chris (2018). Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 44, e-book ed. ISBN 978-0-500-77451-9.
  21. ↑ Kemp, B.J. (2005). Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 159.
  22. ↑ Baker, Rosalie; Baker, Charles (2001). Ancient Egyptians: People of the pyramids. Oxford University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0195122213.
  23. ↑ Romer, John (2013). A History of Ancient Egypt from the First Farmers to the Great Pyramid. Penguin Books. pp. 294–295. ISBN 9780141399713.
  24. ↑ Boylan, Patrick (1922). Thoth or the Hermes of Egypt: A study of some aspects of theological thought in ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 166–168.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Lichtheim, M. (1980). Ancient Egyptian Literature. The University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04020-1.
  26. ↑ Pinch, Geraldine (2002). Handbook of Egyptian Mythology. World Mythology. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio. ISBN 9781576072424. OCLC 52716451.
  27. ↑ Warner, Marina; Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2003). World of Myths. University of Texas Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-292-70204-3.
  28. ↑ "The famine stele on the island of Sehel". Reshafim.org.il. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
  29. ↑ Ryholt, Kim (2009). Widmer, G.; Devauchelle, D. (eds.). The Life of Imhotep?. IXe Congrès International des Études Démotiques. Bibliothèque d'étude. 147. Le Caire, Egypt: Institut français d'archéologie orientale. pp. 305–315.
  30. ↑ Ryholt, Kim (2004). "The Assyrian invasion of Egypt in Egyptian literary tradition". Assyria and Beyond. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. p. 501. ISBN 9062583113.
  31. ↑ Allen, James Peter (2005). The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt. Yale University Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780300107289. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
  32. ↑ Mukherjee, Siddhartha (29 September 2011). The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer. Fourth Estate Ltd; First Edition. ISBN 9780007250929.
  33. ↑ Reid, Danny (24 April 2014). "The Mummy (1932)". Pre-Code.com. Review, with Boris Karloff and David Manners. Retrieved 6 June 2016.

Further reading

  • Asante, Molefi Kete (2000). The Egyptian Philosophers: Ancient African voices from Imhotep to Akhenaten. Chicago, IL: African American Images. ISBN 978-0-913543-66-5.
  • Dawson, Warren R. (1929). Magician and Leech: A study in the beginnings of medicine with special reference to ancient Egypt. London, UK: Methuen.
  • Garry, T. Gerald (1931). Egypt: The home of the occult sciences, with special reference to Imhotep, the mysterious wise man and Egyptian god of medicine. London, UK: John Bale, Sons and Danielsson.
  • Hurry, Jamieson B. (1978) [1926]. Imhotep: The Egyptian god of medicine (2nd ed.). New York, NY: AMS Press. ISBN 978-0-404-13285-9.
Hurry, Jamieson B. (2014) [1926]. Imhotep: The Egyptian god of medicine (reprint ed.). Oxford, UK: Traffic Output. ISBN 978-0-404-13285-9.
  • Wildung, Dietrich (1977). Egyptian Saints: Deification in pharaonic Egypt. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9169-1.
Wildung, Dietrich (1977). Imhotep und Amenhotep: Gottwerdung im alten Ägypten [Imhotep and Amenhotep: Deification in ancient Egypt] (in German). Deustcher Kunstverlag. ISBN 978-3-422-00829-8.

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