History of Botswana: Difference between revisions
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== Pre-colonial history == | == Pre-colonial history == | ||
=== Prehistory === | === Prehistory and early history === | ||
[[File:Tsodilo Hills rock paintings4.jpg|thumb|Prehistoric [[cave painting]]s at [[Tsodilo]]]] | [[File:Tsodilo Hills rock paintings4.jpg|thumb|Prehistoric [[cave painting]]s at [[Tsodilo]]]] | ||
Present-day Botswana was primarily forest ten million years ago, and the rivers were much larger than they are in the present, flowing into a massive [[paleolake]], [[Lake Makgadikgadi]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=10}} ''[[Homo erectus]]'' lived in the region during the [[Early Stone Age]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=14}} Stone tools in present-day Botswana, such as [[Acheulean]] axes, date back to two million years ago.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=26}}{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=6}} Hominin migration to the [[Kalahari Desert]] is estimated to have happened prior to [[Marine Isotope Stage 6]], 186,000 years ago.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=6}} Lake Makgadikgadi began to shrink approximately 50,000 years ago.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=17}} | Present-day Botswana was primarily forest ten million years ago, and the rivers were much larger than they are in the present, flowing into a massive [[paleolake]], [[Lake Makgadikgadi]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=10}} ''[[Homo erectus]]'' lived in the region during the [[Early Stone Age]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=14}} Stone tools in present-day Botswana, such as [[Acheulean]] axes, date back to two million years ago.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=26}}{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=6}} Hominin migration to the [[Kalahari Desert]] is estimated to have happened prior to [[Marine Isotope Stage 6]], 186,000 years ago.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=6}} Lake Makgadikgadi began to shrink approximately 50,000 years ago.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=17}} | ||
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The various peoples of the region were [[hunter-gatherer]]s who remained in small groups and engaged in trade with one another.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=23}} It is believed that each group was a collection of related families holding a specific territory, led by the eldest man of the group's head family.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=25}} Men hunted large animals, while women gathered plants and caught small animals.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=24–25}} The groups intermarried and practiced a [[dowry]] system, ''xaro''.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=26}} | The various peoples of the region were [[hunter-gatherer]]s who remained in small groups and engaged in trade with one another.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=23}} It is believed that each group was a collection of related families holding a specific territory, led by the eldest man of the group's head family.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=25}} Men hunted large animals, while women gathered plants and caught small animals.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=24–25}} The groups intermarried and practiced a [[dowry]] system, ''xaro''.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=26}} | ||
Approximately 2,000 years ago, the peoples of the region brought cattle and sheep to present-day Botswana and began making pottery.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=35}}{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=8}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=28}} Agriculture developed during this time and the peoples began settling in villages, which rose and fell as the climate and [[cattle raid]]s caused livestock access to fluctuate.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=29–30}} Among the earliest crops were [[pearl millet]], [[finger millet]], [[sorghum]], [[Bambara groundnut]]s, [[cowpea]]s, and [[Cucurbitaceae|cucurbit]]s.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|pp=8–9}} | Approximately 2,000 years ago, the peoples of the region brought cattle and sheep to present-day Botswana and began making pottery.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=35}}{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=8}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=28}} Agriculture developed during this time and the peoples began settling in villages, which rose and fell as the climate and [[cattle raid]]s caused livestock access to fluctuate.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=29–30}} Among the earliest crops were [[pearl millet]], [[finger millet]], [[sorghum]], [[Bambara groundnut]]s, [[cowpea]]s, and [[Cucurbitaceae|cucurbit]]s.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|pp=8–9}} | ||
The first Bantu people [[Bantu expansion|migrated to the region]] between 2,000 and 1,500 years ago, and it was once believed that they were the ones who had first introduced livestock to the area.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=22–24, 28}} The [[Kalanga people]] were the first of the [[Bantu people]]s to settle in present-day Botswana, arriving {{circa|200 CE}}.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=27}} The first [[Tswana people]] (singular ''Motswana'', plural ''Batswana'') are estimated to have arrived c. 400 CE.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=27}} These Bantu peoples brought iron and copper tools to the region and settled along permanent waterways.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=9}} They built permanent settlements of about 10–15 [[pole-and-daga]] houses each, rather than the temporary structures of the more nomadic Khoisan.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=44–45}} The Khoisan and the Bantu likely traded and intermarried during this period.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=36}} | The first Bantu people [[Bantu expansion|migrated to the region]] between 2,000 and 1,500 years ago, and it was once believed that they were the ones who had first introduced livestock to the area.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=22–24, 28}} The [[Kalanga people]] were the first of the [[Bantu people]]s to settle in present-day Botswana, arriving {{circa|200 CE}}.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=27}} The ancestors of the first [[Tswana people]] (singular ''Motswana'', plural ''Batswana'') are estimated to have arrived c. 400 CE.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=27}} These Bantu peoples brought iron and copper tools to the region and settled along permanent waterways.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=9}} They built permanent settlements of about 10–15 [[pole-and-daga]] houses each, rather than the temporary structures of the more nomadic Khoisan.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=44–45}} The Khoisan and the Bantu likely traded and intermarried during this period.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=36}} | ||
=== | === 7th century through 14th century === | ||
A group of [[Zhizo people]], the [[Taukome people]], arrived in present-day Botswana by the 7th century and settled between the [[Shashe River]] and the [[Serorome River]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=54–55}}{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=10}} Their possession of [[glass bead]]s indicates early connection to [[Indian Ocean trade]].{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=10}} The number of livestock kept in present-day Botswana increased significantly between the 8th century and the 10th century.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=26}} The Tswana people organised themselves into a type of tribal government, called a ''[[morafe]]'' (plural ''merafe''), each led by a chief called a ''[[kgosi]]'' (plural ''dikgosi'').{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=28}} This system produced a more hierarchical government relative to others in the region.{{Sfn|Samatar|1999|p=40}} Cattle became a central part of society in the region, and ownership of cattle denoted one's status.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=11}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=46}} The early history of the Tswana people remains largely unknown because little archaeological evidence has been left.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=27}} | A group of [[Zhizo people]], the [[Taukome people]], arrived in present-day Botswana by the 7th century and settled between the [[Shashe River]] and the [[Serorome River]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=54–55}}{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=10}} Their possession of [[glass bead]]s indicates early connection to [[Indian Ocean trade]].{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=10}} The number of livestock kept in present-day Botswana increased significantly between the 8th century and the 10th century.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=26}} The Tswana people organised themselves into a type of tribal government, called a ''[[morafe]]'' (plural ''merafe''), each led by a chief called a ''[[kgosi]]'' (plural ''dikgosi'').{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=28}} This system produced a more hierarchical government relative to others in the region.{{Sfn|Samatar|1999|p=40}} Cattle became a central part of society in the region, and ownership of cattle denoted one's status.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=11}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=46}} The early history of the Tswana people remains largely unknown because little archaeological evidence has been left.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=27}} | ||
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The value of products fluctuated as expanding trade with foreign nations and the discovery of gold occurred, reducing interest in specularite and animal products like ivory.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|pp=27–28}} One tribe in Tsodilo was particularly influential in the trade of specularite until it fell at the end of the 12th century.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=27}} The tribes in southeastern Botswana were far removed from these developments and remained largely unaffected.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=28}} | The value of products fluctuated as expanding trade with foreign nations and the discovery of gold occurred, reducing interest in specularite and animal products like ivory.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|pp=27–28}} One tribe in Tsodilo was particularly influential in the trade of specularite until it fell at the end of the 12th century.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=27}} The tribes in southeastern Botswana were far removed from these developments and remained largely unaffected.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=28}} | ||
Neighbouring present-day Botswana during the 11th and 12th centuries were the people of [[Leopard's Kopje]] to the east.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|pp=12—13}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=61}} First established in [[Bambandyanalo]], they became major figures in regional trade and moved to Mapungubwe by the late-11th century where they formed the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=67–68}} They projected influence across the region through the 12th century.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|pp=12—13}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=61}} The peoples of the Okavango Delta and later the peoples of the Tsodilo Hills were forced to abandon their settlements during this time, which may have been because they were cut off from major trade routes. Only the Khoe people stayed in the area.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=46, 81}} Mapungubwe fell by the 13th century,{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=14}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=69}} and the Toutswe villages, cut off from trade, fell around the same time.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=61}} The [[Mambo people]] lived around present-day [[Francistown]] and became influential around this time.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=80}} | Neighbouring present-day Botswana during the 11th and 12th centuries were the people of [[Leopard's Kopje]] to the east.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|pp=12—13}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=61}} First established in [[Bambandyanalo]], they became major figures in regional trade and moved to Mapungubwe by the late-11th century where they formed the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=67–68}} They projected influence across the region through the 12th century.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|pp=12—13}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=61}} The peoples of the Okavango Delta and later the peoples of the Tsodilo Hills were forced to abandon their settlements during this time, which may have been because they were cut off from major trade routes. Only the Khoe people stayed in the area.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=46, 81}} Mapungubwe fell by the 13th century,{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=14}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=69}} and the Toutswe villages, cut off from trade, fell around the same time.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=61}} The [[Mambo people]] lived around present-day [[Francistown]] and became influential around this time.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=80}} The modern Tswana, [[Khalagari people|Khalagari]], and [[Sotho people|Sotho]] peoples began to form in Transvaal around the 12th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=89}} The Khalagari migrated west to what is now southeastern Botswana.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=96}} The [[Fokeng people]] also appeared to the west in the 12th century,{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=93}} and the [[Moloko people]] appeared by the 13th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=89}} The original Tswana tribe, the [[Phofu dynasty]], was created in Transvaal in the 13th century by [[Mogale]]. Over the following centuries, it split into several Tswana peoples, including the [[Hurutshe people|Hurutshe]], [[Kwena people|Kwena]], [[Ngwaketse people|Ngwaketse]], [[Ngwato people|Ngwato]], [[Tlharo people|Tlharo]], and [[Kgatla people|Kgatla]] peoples.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=96}} | ||
The [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] emerged and replaced Mapungubwe the regional power in the 13th century when the [[Gumanye people]] gained influence in the city of [[Great Zimbabwe]], which was able to control trade more closely with its valuable land and resources and its closer proximity to the coast.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=77–78}} Zimbabwe controlled many of the tribes that existed in what is now northeastern Botswana,{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=xvi}} and the gold trade became a driving factor in the region's economy.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=14}} Zimbabwe was losing influence by the end of the 14th century, and it fell in the mid-15th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=87}} Several other states developed after its fall. The [[Kingdom of Butua]], formed by the [[Kalanga people]]s, | The [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] emerged and replaced Mapungubwe the regional power in the 13th century when the [[Gumanye people]] gained influence in the city of [[Great Zimbabwe]], which was able to control trade more closely with its valuable land and resources and its closer proximity to the coast.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=77–78}} Zimbabwe controlled many of the tribes that existed in what is now northeastern Botswana,{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=xvi}} and the gold trade became a driving factor in the region's economy.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=14}} Zimbabwe was losing influence by the end of the 14th century, and it fell in the mid-15th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=87}} Several other states developed after its fall. The [[Kingdom of Butua]], formed by the [[Kalanga people]]s, took Zimbabwe's place on the present-day [[Botswana–Zimbabwe border]].{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=14}}{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=xvi}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=98–100}} | ||
=== | The Tswana and [[Pedi people|Pedi]] peoples followed the Khalagari people west around the late 14th century,{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=95}} and the [[Rolong people]] separated under the rule of [[Morolong]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=96}} The chief [[Masilo (chief)|Masilo]] is said to have ruled all of the western Tswana peoples at this time, until the Tlharo people separated from his domain. The area is then said to have been ruled by [[Malope (chief)|Malope]] at the end of the 15th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=93}} | ||
=== 15th century through 18th century === | |||
[[File:Campbell - Thlapingkaptein en sy vrou.png|thumb|An illustration of a Tswana man and his wife in the early 1800s]] | [[File:Campbell - Thlapingkaptein en sy vrou.png|thumb|An illustration of a Tswana man and his wife in the early 1800s]] | ||
Tswana peoples migrated internally through present-day Botswana as they were displaced by native and colonial populations from the south,{{Sfn|Leith|2005|p=19}} and they had a presence throughout present-day Botswana by 1600.{{Sfn|Hjort|2009|p=703}} Large migrations of Kalanga and Sotho–Tswana peoples took place in the 15th and 16th centuries.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=14}} The Kalanga peoples controlled the land between the [[Motloutse River]] and the [[Makgadikgadi Pan]] until the 18th century.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=27}} The | Tswana peoples migrated internally through present-day Botswana as they were displaced by native and colonial populations from the south,{{Sfn|Leith|2005|p=19}} and they had a presence throughout present-day Botswana by 1600.{{Sfn|Hjort|2009|p=703}} The original Tswana tribe, the Phofu dynasty, declined in the late-15th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=104}} Large migrations of Kalanga and Sotho–Tswana peoples took place in the 15th and 16th centuries.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=14}} The Kalanga peoples controlled the land between the [[Motloutse River]] and the [[Makgadikgadi Pan]] until the 18th century.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=27}} The Hurutshe, Kgatla, and Kwena peoples split from the Phofu dynasty in the Transvaal region amid drought and hereditary conflicts, eventually migrating north to present-day Botswana.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=10}}{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=97}} The Ngwaketse and Ngwato peoples in turn split from the Kwena around 1530.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=105}} Some peoples of the region remained in the Late Stone Age until around the 16th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=22}} | ||
The peoples of present-day Botswana had established long travel routes by the end of the 17th century, travelling hundreds of kilometres for both for trade, hunting, and social purposes.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|pp=108–109}} Tribes were able to easily separate and form independently from one another because the region's primary asset, cattle, is easily transported.{{Sfn|Hjort|2009|p=703}}{{Sfn|Leith|2005|p=19}} The western tribes were especially prone to separation because of the large distances between towns and farmlands.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=392}} Splits between the Tswana groups took place through the 17th century, defining the modern tribes.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=106}} The western Tswana tribes were often the targets of raids by the [[Griqua people]].{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=392}} As Tswana peoples moved north to present-day southeastern Botswana in the 17th century, they settled lands occupied by Khalagari peoples, assimilating or displacing them. The Kwena people and their offshoot tribes migrated to present-day Botswana under the rule of [[Kgabo II]] and settled near [[Molepolole]].{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=106}} According to oral tradition, the pastoralist [[Herero people|Herero]] and [[Mbanderu people|Mbanderu]] peoples split from the [[Mbunda people]] in the 17th century as Tswana cattle raids scattered the groups,{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|pp=8–9}} and the [[Yeyi people]] migrated from the upper [[Chobe River]] into the [[Okavango Delta]] in the 18th century.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=8}} In other places, the [[Kaa people]] split from the [[Rolong people]] and the [[Khurutshe people]] split from the [[Bahurutshe people]], with both groups migrating northward.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=107}} The [[Bashaga people]] integrated into the Khalagari peoples in the late-18th century.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=110}} | |||
The first Tswana state was formed by the | The first Tswana state was formed by the Ngwaketse people in the mid-18th century. Subsequent Tswana states were formed by the Kwena people, the Ngwato people, and the [[Tawana people]] over the following decades.{{Sfn|Robinson|Parsons|2006|p=113}} With these came the development of the ''[[mophato]]'' (plural ''mephato''), a militia regiment organised by age group, among the eastern Tswana peoples in the 1750s.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=386}} Two Kgatla peoples, the [[Kgafela people]] and the [[Tlokwa people]], joined at this time and seized control over the area surrounding [[Pilanesberg]] in present-day South Africa. They subjugated several peoples in the region and twice won conflicts against the Fokeng people.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|pp=390–391}} The use of ''mephato'' spread to the western Tswana peoples by the end of the century.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=386}} It was never widely adopted in the south.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=392}} | ||
=== The Difaqane === | === The Difaqane === | ||
The ''[[Difaqane]]'', a period of conflict and displacement in southern Africa, took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=17}} During this time, the Tswana people were subject to raids by many groups, including the [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]], the [[Kololo people|Kololo]], the [[Ngoni people|Ngoni]],{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=28}} the | The ''[[Difaqane]]'', a period of conflict and displacement in southern Africa, took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=17}} During this time, the Tswana people were subject to raids by many groups, including the [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]], the [[Kololo people|Kololo]], the [[Ngoni people|Ngoni]],{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=28}} the Pedi, and the [[Voortrekker]]s.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=391}} Most Tswana groups opted to retreat instead of fight.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=394}} This triggered extensive migration across the region, causing the Tswana tribes to more thoroughly spread and establish a stronger presence throughout the territory of present-day Botswana.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=25}} They settled primarily in the ''[[hardveld]]'' that makes up the eastern region of present-day Botswana.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=29}} The Kwena and Ngwaketse peoples migrated from [[South African Republic|Transvaal]] to the ''sandveld''.{{Sfn|Klehm|2021|p=18}} The first of the Kgatla peoples to settle in present-day Botswana, the [[Mmanaana people]], migrated from South Africa in the early 19th century before settling in [[Moshupa]] and [[Thamaga]].{{Sfn|Matemba|2003|p=53, 56}} Only some of the northwestern Tswana peoples were spared displacement or interruption.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=393}} | ||
The Kololo people attacked the northwestern Tswana peoples in 1826, forcing the Kwena and Ngwaketse from their respective territories. [[Sebogo]], the regent of the Ngwaketse tribe, raised 4,000 men in their ''mephato'' and surrounded [[Dithubaruba]] where the Kololo were residing. Killing the warriors and the civilians, they permanently expelled the Kololo from the region.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|pp=393–394}} | The Kololo people attacked the northwestern Tswana peoples in 1826, forcing the Kwena and Ngwaketse from their respective territories. [[Sebogo]], the regent of the Ngwaketse tribe, raised 4,000 men in their ''mephato'' and surrounded [[Dithubaruba]] where the Kololo were residing. Killing the warriors and the civilians, they permanently expelled the Kololo from the region.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|pp=393–394}} | ||
The tribes reestablished their states in the 1840s, founding several towns and villages of varying sizes.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=31}}{{Sfn|Hjort|2009|p=693}}{{Sfn|Robinson|Parsons|2006|p=114}} Governance was based around the ''[[kgotla]]'', a deliberative forum in which the chief or a regional leader heard the concerns of most male citizens before making decisions.{{Sfn|Hjort|2009|p=695}}{{Sfn|Holm|Molutsi|1992|p=77}} | The tribes reestablished their states in the 1840s, founding several towns and villages of varying sizes.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=31}}{{Sfn|Hjort|2009|p=693}}{{Sfn|Robinson|Parsons|2006|p=114}} Governance was based around the ''[[kgotla]]'', a deliberative forum in which the chief or a regional leader heard the concerns of most male citizens before making decisions.{{Sfn|Hjort|2009|p=695}}{{Sfn|Holm|Molutsi|1992|p=77}} By 1880, the Tswana and Khalagari peoples had colonised all of present-day Botswana.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=107}} | ||
=== European missionaries === | === European missionaries === | ||
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British traders arrived in the 1830s and engaged in transactions with the chiefs.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=38}} The influx of European settlers nearby allowed the Tswana tribes to incorporate themselves into the global economy.{{Sfn|Samatar|1999|p=43}} Chief [[Sechele I]] of the Kwena people took advantage of the new trading routes, securing control of British trade for his tribe.{{Sfn|Robinson|Parsons|2006|p=114}} The Scottish missionary [[David Livingstone]] arrived in Botswana in 1845, where he established the [[Kolobeng Mission]]. This was the beginning of heavier European involvement in the Tswana tribes as they established intercontinental trade routes.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=xvi}} Westernised fashion was adopted in urban areas through the rest of the century and combined with traditional clothing.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|pp=120–121}} In another effort to thwart the Boers, Livingstone provided firearms to the Kwena people. Sechele was the first person who Livingstone converted to Christianity, and the chief subsequently offered to convert his head men using rhinoceros-hide whips.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=29}} | British traders arrived in the 1830s and engaged in transactions with the chiefs.{{Sfn|Hillbom|Bolt|2018|p=38}} The influx of European settlers nearby allowed the Tswana tribes to incorporate themselves into the global economy.{{Sfn|Samatar|1999|p=43}} Chief [[Sechele I]] of the Kwena people took advantage of the new trading routes, securing control of British trade for his tribe.{{Sfn|Robinson|Parsons|2006|p=114}} The Scottish missionary [[David Livingstone]] arrived in Botswana in 1845, where he established the [[Kolobeng Mission]]. This was the beginning of heavier European involvement in the Tswana tribes as they established intercontinental trade routes.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=xvi}} Westernised fashion was adopted in urban areas through the rest of the century and combined with traditional clothing.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|pp=120–121}} In another effort to thwart the Boers, Livingstone provided firearms to the Kwena people. Sechele was the first person who Livingstone converted to Christianity, and the chief subsequently offered to convert his head men using rhinoceros-hide whips.{{Sfn|Denbow|Thebe|2006|p=29}} | ||
The Butua kingdom of the Kalanga peoples fell in 1840.{{Sfn|Tlou|Campbell|1997|p=100}} | |||
The Tswana peoples faced conflict from other groups in the region, peaking in the 1850s. Many Batswana, particularly the Kwena and Ngwato tribes, fought against Afrikaners and Zulu tribes in the eastern Kalahari Desert.{{Sfn|Rotberg|2023|p=195}} The Kwena and the Mmanaana fought against Boers from Transvaal in 1852, defending their territory and ending the nation's westward expansion.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=396}} The Batswana saw missionary groups as a means of refuge from invaders, incentivising conversion to Christianity.{{Sfn|Rotberg|2023|p=196}} Sechele requested a British protectorate in 1853 to end regional conflicts, but he was denied.{{Sfn|Beaulier|Subrick|2006|p=107}} | The Tswana peoples faced conflict from other groups in the region, peaking in the 1850s. Many Batswana, particularly the Kwena and Ngwato tribes, fought against Afrikaners and Zulu tribes in the eastern Kalahari Desert.{{Sfn|Rotberg|2023|p=195}} The Kwena and the Mmanaana fought against Boers from Transvaal in 1852, defending their territory and ending the nation's westward expansion.{{Sfn|Morton|2012|p=396}} The Batswana saw missionary groups as a means of refuge from invaders, incentivising conversion to Christianity.{{Sfn|Rotberg|2023|p=196}} Sechele requested a British protectorate in 1853 to end regional conflicts, but he was denied.{{Sfn|Beaulier|Subrick|2006|p=107}} | ||
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=== Presidency of Duma Boko === | === Presidency of Duma Boko === | ||
[[File:Secretary Rubio Meets with Botswana President Boko (54371806715).jpg|thumb|Duma Boko signing an agreement with the United States in 2025]] | [[File:Secretary Rubio Meets with Botswana President Boko (54371806715).jpg|thumb|Duma Boko signing an agreement with the United States in 2025]]The [[Umbrella for Democratic Change]] (UDC) became the first opposition party in Botswana to take power following its victory in the [[2024 Botswana general election|2024 general election]], ending 58 years of rule by the [[Botswana Democratic Party]] (BDP).{{Sfn|Muia|Zane|2024}} In his first State of the Nation Address in November 2024, Duma Boko said that his government would push for increased investment into solar energy, medicinal [[cannabis]] and industrial hemp. He also announced engagements with [[Elon Musk]] to extend affordable internet access nationwide through [[Starlink]].{{Sfn|France24|2024}} In March 2025, Botswana launched its first [[satellite]], the [[BOTSAT‑1]], into space.{{Sfn|Ranjan|2025}} [[Duma Boko|Boko]] attended the satellite's launch, which took place at [[SpaceX]] facilities in the United States.{{Sfn|Namunwa|2025}} | ||
The UDC became the first opposition party in Botswana to take power following its victory in the [[2024 Botswana general election|2024 general election]], ending 58 years of rule by the BDP.{{Sfn|Muia|Zane|2024}} In his first State of the Nation Address in November 2024, Duma Boko said that his government would push for increased investment into solar energy, medicinal [[cannabis]] and industrial hemp. He also announced engagements with [[Elon Musk]] to extend affordable internet access nationwide through [[Starlink]].{{Sfn|France24|2024}} In March 2025, Botswana launched its first [[satellite]], the [[ | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| Line 290: | Line 292: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
=== Books === | === Books === | ||
* {{Cite book | | * {{Cite book |last1=Denbow |first1=James R. |title=Culture and Customs of Botswana |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000denb |last2=Thebe |first2=Phenyo C. |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-33178-7 |oclc=ocm62118271 |url-access=registration}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Gulbrandsen |first=Ørnulf |title=The State and the Social: State Formation in Botswana and its Precolonial and Colonial Genealogies |year=2012 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-0-85745-298-6}} | * {{Cite book |last=Gulbrandsen |first=Ørnulf |title=The State and the Social: State Formation in Botswana and its Precolonial and Colonial Genealogies |year=2012 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-0-85745-298-6}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last1=Hillbom |first1=Ellen |title=Botswana – A Modern Economic History |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-73144-5 |last2=Bolt |first2=Jutta |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-319-73144-5 |url-access=subscription}} | * {{Cite book |last1=Hillbom |first1=Ellen |title=Botswana – A Modern Economic History |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-73144-5 |last2=Bolt |first2=Jutta |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2018 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-73144-5 |isbn=978-3-319-73144-5 |url-access=subscription}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last1=Holm |first1=John D. |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781685853297/html |title=Governance and Politics in Africa |last2=Molutsi |first2=Patrick P. |year=1992 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1-55587-285-4 |editor-last=Hydén |editor-first=Göran |pages=75–95 |chapter=State-Society Relations in Botswana: Beginning Liberalization |editor-last2=Bratton |editor-first2=Michael |url-access=subscription}} | * {{Cite book |last1=Holm |first1=John D. |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781685853297/html |title=Governance and Politics in Africa |last2=Molutsi |first2=Patrick P. |year=1992 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1-55587-285-4 |editor-last=Hydén |editor-first=Göran |pages=75–95 |chapter=State-Society Relations in Botswana: Beginning Liberalization |doi=10.1515/9781685853297 |editor-last2=Bratton |editor-first2=Michael |url-access=subscription}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Ashley |author-link=Ashley Jackson (historian) |title=Botswana, 1939-1945: An African Country at War |url=https://archive.org/details/botswana1939194500jack/ |year=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-820764-1 |url-access=registration}} | * {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Ashley |author-link=Ashley Jackson (historian) |title=Botswana, 1939-1945: An African Country at War |url=https://archive.org/details/botswana1939194500jack/ |year=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-820764-1 |url-access=registration}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Leith |first=James Clark |title=Why Botswana Prospered |url=https://archive.org/details/whybotswanaprosp0000leit/ |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2821-5 |url-access=registration}} | * {{Cite book |last=Leith |first=James Clark |title=Why Botswana Prospered |url=https://archive.org/details/whybotswanaprosp0000leit/ |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2821-5 |url-access=registration}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Molutsi |first=Patrick |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781685857325/ |title=Democratic Reform in Africa |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=9781685857325 |editor-last=Gyimah-Boadi |editor-first=E. |pages=159–182 |chapter=Botswana: The Path to Democracy and Development |url-access=subscription}} | * {{Cite book |last=Molutsi |first=Patrick |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781685857325/ |title=Democratic Reform in Africa |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=9781685857325 |editor-last=Gyimah-Boadi |editor-first=E. |pages=159–182 |chapter=Botswana: The Path to Democracy and Development |doi=10.1515/9781685857325 |url-access=subscription}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Nyamnjoh |first=Francis B. |author-link=Francis B. Nyamnjoh |chapter='Ever-Diminishing Circles': The Paradoxes of Belonging in Botswana |title=Indigenous Experience Today |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=9781003085690 |editor-last=de la Cadena |editor-first=Marisol |editor-last2=Starn |editor-first2=Orin |pages=305–332}} | * {{Cite book |last=Nyamnjoh |first=Francis B. |author-link=Francis B. Nyamnjoh |chapter='Ever-Diminishing Circles': The Paradoxes of Belonging in Botswana |title=Indigenous Experience Today |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=9781003085690 |editor-last=de la Cadena |editor-first=Marisol |editor-last2=Starn |editor-first2=Orin |pages=305–332}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Rotberg |first=Robert I. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/45388 |title=Overcoming the Oppressors: White and Black in Southern Africa |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2023 |isbn=9780197674239 |pages=192–231 |chapter=Botswana: Africa's Democratic Exception |url-access=subscription}} | * {{Cite book |last=Rotberg |first=Robert I. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/45388 |title=Overcoming the Oppressors: White and Black in Southern Africa |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2023 |isbn=9780197674239 |pages=192–231 |chapter=Botswana: Africa's Democratic Exception |url-access=subscription}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Samatar |first=Abdi Ismail |author-link=Abdi Ismail Samatar |url=https://archive.org/details/africanmiraclest0000sama |title=An African Miracle: State and Class Leadership and Colonial Legacy in Botswana Development |year=1999 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-325-00068-8 |url-access=registration}} | * {{Cite book |last=Samatar |first=Abdi Ismail |author-link=Abdi Ismail Samatar |url=https://archive.org/details/africanmiraclest0000sama |title=An African Miracle: State and Class Leadership and Colonial Legacy in Botswana Development |year=1999 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-325-00068-8 |url-access=registration}} | ||
* {{Cite book | | * {{Cite book |last1=Tlou |first1=Thomas |author-link1=Thomas Tlou |last2=Campbell |first2=Alec C. |author-link2=Alec Campbell (archaeologist) |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbotswan0000tlou |title=History of Botswana |edition=2nd |year=1997 |orig-date=1984 |publisher=Macmillan Botswana |isbn=9991278087}} | ||
=== Journals === | === Journals === | ||
* {{Cite journal |last1=Beaulier |first1=Scott A. |author-link=Scott Beaulier |last2=Subrick |first2=J. Robert |year=2006 |title=The Political Foundations of Development: The Case of Botswana |journal=Constitutional Political Economy |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=103–115 |doi=10.1007/s10602-006-0002-x |issn=1043-4062}} | * {{Cite journal |last1=Beaulier |first1=Scott A. |author-link=Scott Beaulier |last2=Subrick |first2=J. Robert |year=2006 |title=The Political Foundations of Development: The Case of Botswana |journal=Constitutional Political Economy |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=103–115 |doi=10.1007/s10602-006-0002-x |issn=1043-4062}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last1=Botlhomilwe |first1=Mokganedi Zara |last2=Sebudubudu |first2=David |last3=Maripe |first3=Bugalo |year=2011 |title=Limited freedom and intolerance in Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233467593 |journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=331–348 |doi=10.1080/02589001.2011.581501 |issn=0258-9001}} | * {{Cite journal |last1=Botlhomilwe |first1=Mokganedi Zara |last2=Sebudubudu |first2=David |last3=Maripe |first3=Bugalo |year=2011 |title=Limited freedom and intolerance in Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233467593 |journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=331–348 |doi=10.1080/02589001.2011.581501 |issn=0258-9001}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Chris |year=2020 |title=Botswana Votes 2019: Two-Party Competition and the Khama Factor |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=703–722 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2020.1778901 |issn=0305-7070}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Chris |year=2020 |title=Botswana Votes 2019: Two-Party Competition and the Khama Factor |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=703–722 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2020.1778901 |bibcode=2020JSAfS..46..703B |issn=0305-7070}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last=Hjort |first=Jonas |year=2009 |title=Pre-Colonial Culture, Post-Colonial Economic Success? The Tswana and the African Economic Miracle |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=688–709 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00495.x |pmid=20617585}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Hjort |first=Jonas |year=2009 |title=Pre-Colonial Culture, Post-Colonial Economic Success? The Tswana and the African Economic Miracle |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=688–709 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00495.x |pmid=20617585}} | ||
* {{Cite journal | | * {{Cite journal |last1=LaRocco |first1=Annette A |last2=Mogende |first2=Emmanuel |year=2022 |title=Fall from grace or back down to earth? Conservation and political conflict in Africa's "miracle" state |journal=Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=22–49 |doi=10.1177/25148486221101553 |issn=2514-8486}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last1=Lotshwao |first1=Kebapetse |last2=Suping |first2=Kekgaoditse |year=2013 |title=The 2010 Split of the Botswana Democratic Party |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310771824 |journal=Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=343–360}} | * {{Cite journal |last1=Lotshwao |first1=Kebapetse |last2=Suping |first2=Kekgaoditse |year=2013 |title=The 2010 Split of the Botswana Democratic Party |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310771824 |journal=Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=343–360}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last=Makgala |first=Christian John |year=2009 |title=History and Perceptions of Regionalism in Botswana, 1891–2005 |journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=225–242 |doi=10.1080/02589000902867329 |issn=0258-9001}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Makgala |first=Christian John |year=2009 |title=History and Perceptions of Regionalism in Botswana, 1891–2005 |journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=225–242 |doi=10.1080/02589000902867329 |issn=0258-9001}} | ||
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* {{Cite journal |last=Matemba |first=Yonah Hisbon |date=1 January 2003 |title=The pre-colonial political history of BaKgatla ba ga Mmanaana of Botswana, c. 1600-1881 |journal=Botswana Notes and Records |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |hdl=10520/AJA052550590_131}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Matemba |first=Yonah Hisbon |date=1 January 2003 |title=The pre-colonial political history of BaKgatla ba ga Mmanaana of Botswana, c. 1600-1881 |journal=Botswana Notes and Records |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |hdl=10520/AJA052550590_131}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last=Morton |first=Fred |year=2012 |title=Mephato: The Rise of the Tswana Militia in the Pre-colonial Period |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=385–397 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2012.683600 |issn=0305-7070}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Morton |first=Fred |year=2012 |title=Mephato: The Rise of the Tswana Militia in the Pre-colonial Period |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=385–397 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2012.683600 |issn=0305-7070}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last=Mosime |first=Sethunya Tshepho |year=2020 |title=Decolonization Deferred: Seretse Khama Ian Khama's Presidency and the Historical Deradicalization of 'Culture' as a Tool for Resistance in Botswana |journal=Alternation: Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of the Arts and Humanities in Southern Africa |volume=SP36 |pages=188–209 |doi=10.29086/2519-5476/2020/sp36a9 |doi-access=free}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Mosime |first=Sethunya Tshepho |year=2020 |title=Decolonization Deferred: Seretse Khama Ian Khama's Presidency and the Historical Deradicalization of 'Culture' as a Tool for Resistance in Botswana |journal=Alternation: Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of the Arts and Humanities in Southern Africa |volume=SP36 |pages=188–209 |doi=10.29086/2519-5476/2020/sp36a9 |doi-broken-date=22 December 2025 |doi-access=free}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last=Ntuane |first=Botsalo |year=2018 |title=President Festus Mogae: The Regent Who Became King |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90026925 |journal=Botswana Notes and Records |volume=50 |pages=333–338 |issn=0525-5090 |jstor=90026925}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Ntuane |first=Botsalo |year=2018 |title=President Festus Mogae: The Regent Who Became King |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90026925 |journal=Botswana Notes and Records |volume=50 |pages=333–338 |issn=0525-5090 |jstor=90026925}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |last=Parsons |first=Neil |year=2006 |title=Unravelling History and Cultural Heritage in Botswana |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=667–682 |doi=10.1080/03057070600995350 |issn=0305-7070}} | * {{Cite journal |last=Parsons |first=Neil |year=2006 |title=Unravelling History and Cultural Heritage in Botswana |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=667–682 |doi=10.1080/03057070600995350 |issn=0305-7070}} | ||
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=== Web === | === Web === | ||
* {{Cite web | | * {{Cite web |last1=Muia |first1=Wycliffe |last2=Zane |first2=Damian |date=1 November 2024 |title=Botswana election: BDP party loses power after nearly six decades to Duma Boko's UDC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c238n5zr51yo |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=BBC News}} | ||
* {{Cite web |last=France24 |date=2024-11-20 |title=New Botswana leader eyes cannabis, sunshine to lift economy |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20241119-new-botswana-leader-eyes-cannabis-sunshine-to-lift-economy |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=France 24 |language=en-UK}} | * {{Cite web |last=France24 |date=2024-11-20 |title=New Botswana leader eyes cannabis, sunshine to lift economy |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20241119-new-botswana-leader-eyes-cannabis-sunshine-to-lift-economy |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=France 24 |language=en-UK}} | ||
* {{Cite web |last=Ranjan |first=Aayushya |date=2025-03-07 |title=Botswana Enters the Space Age with Historic BOTSAT-1 Launch |url=https://techafricanews.com/2025/03/07/botswana-enters-the-space-age-with-historic-botsat-1-launch/ |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=TechAfrica News |language=en-US}} | * {{Cite web |last=Ranjan |first=Aayushya |date=2025-03-07 |title=Botswana Enters the Space Age with Historic BOTSAT-1 Launch |url=https://techafricanews.com/2025/03/07/botswana-enters-the-space-age-with-historic-botsat-1-launch/ |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=TechAfrica News |language=en-US}} | ||
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* {{Cite book |last=Lekorwe |first=Mogopodi H. |url=https://archive.org/details/botswanapolitics0000unse |title=Botswana, Politics and Society |year=1998 |publisher=J.L. van Schaik |isbn=978-0-627-02231-9 |url-access=registration}} | * {{Cite book |last=Lekorwe |first=Mogopodi H. |url=https://archive.org/details/botswanapolitics0000unse |title=Botswana, Politics and Society |year=1998 |publisher=J.L. van Schaik |isbn=978-0-627-02231-9 |url-access=registration}} | ||
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* {{Cite book |last=Picard |first=Louis A. |title=The Politics of Development in Botswana: A Model for Success? |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781685859534/html |year=1987 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-0-931477-95-9 |url-access=subscription}} | * {{Cite book |last=Picard |first=Louis A. |title=The Politics of Development in Botswana: A Model for Success? |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781685859534/html |year=1987 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |doi=10.1515/9781685859534 |isbn=978-0-931477-95-9 |url-access=subscription}} | ||
* {{Cite book | | * {{Cite book |last1=Schapera |first1=Isaac |author-link1=Isaac Schapera |url=https://archive.org/details/tswana0000scha |title=The Tswana |last2=Comaroff |first2=John L. |author-link2=John Comaroff |year=1991 |orig-date=1953 |publisher=Kegan Paul International |isbn=978-0-7103-0421-6 |url-access=registration}} | ||
* {{Cite book |last=Sillery |first=Anthony |title=Botswana: A Short Political History |year=2023 |orig-date=1974 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-003-80411-6}} | * {{Cite book |last=Sillery |first=Anthony |title=Botswana: A Short Political History |year=2023 |orig-date=1974 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-003-80411-6}} | ||
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Stedman |editor-first=Stephen John |title=Botswana: The Political Economy of Democratic Development |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=9781685856380}} | * {{Cite book |editor-last=Stedman |editor-first=Stephen John |title=Botswana: The Political Economy of Democratic Development |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=9781685856380}} | ||