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{{Short description|Book of the Bible}}
{{Short description|Book of the Hebrew Bible}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox religious text
| name                    = Book of Malachi
| subheader              = מַלְאָכִי
| image                  = CodexGigas 119 MinorProphets.jpg
| alt                    = The book of Malachi in Latin
| caption                = The whole Book of Malachi in [[Latin]] as a part of [[Codex Gigas]], made around the 13th century
| religion                = {{hlist|[[Judaism]] | [[Christianity]]}}
| author                  = Traditionally [[Malachi]] (or [[Ezra]])
| period                  = 500 BCE
| language                = [[Hebrew]]
| chapters                = 3{{efn|In the [[Hebrew Bible]] and [[Septuagint]]}} or 4{{efn|In the [[Latin Vulgate]]}}
| native_wikisource      = ספר מלאכי
| orig_lang_code          = he
| wikisource              = Malachi (Bible)
| previous                = Book of Zechariah
| next                    = Gospel of Matthew
}}
{{Tanakh OT|Nevi'im|prophetic}}
{{Tanakh OT|Nevi'im|prophetic}}
The '''Book of Malachi''' ({{langx|he|rtl=yes|סֵפֶר מַלְאָכִי|translit=Sēfer Malʾākhî}}) is the last book of the [[Nevi'im]] in the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) and canonically the final book of the [[Twelve Minor Prophets]]. In most [[Christian tradition]]s, the [[prophetic books]] form the last section of the [[Old Testament]], making Malachi the last book before the [[New Testament]]. The book is divided into three chapters in the Hebrew Bible and [[Septuagint]], and four in the [[Latin Vulgate]]. The fourth chapter in the Vulgate consists of the remainder of the third chapter, starting at verse 3:19.<ref>{{bibleverse|Malachi|4:1–6|VULGATE}}</ref>


The '''Book of Malachi''' ({{langx|he|מַלְאָכִי|translit=Malʾāḵī}}) is the last book of the [[Nevi'im]] in the [[Tanakh]] and canonically the final book of the [[Twelve Minor Prophets]]. In most [[Christian tradition]]s, the [[prophetic books]] form the last section of the [[Old Testament]], making Malachi the last book before the [[New Testament]]. The book has four chapters.
The author of the text may or may not have been an eponymous figure named [[Malachi]]. While often regarded as a proper name, the meaning of the word is simply "my messenger" in the [[Hebrew language]],<ref>{{Tanakhverse|Malachi|3:1}}</ref> and the Septuagint translation renders it as "his messenger." During the time the text was written, it was not used as a personal name.{{cn|date=January 2026}} In [[tractate Megillah]] 15a of the [[Talmud]],<ref>{{cite Talmud|b|Megillah|15a:5}}</ref> [[Rabbi]] [[Joshua ben Karha]] and [[Rav Nachman]]—both ''[[Tannaim]]''—taught that the book was authored by [[Ezra the Scribe]], a prominent scholar and [[kohen]] who played a significant role in shaping Jewish religious law (''[[Halakha]]'') and tradition.<ref name="h458">{{cite journal | last=Kalimi | first=Isaac | title=The Book of Malachi: Its Place in the Twelve Minor Prophets, in Jewish and in Christian Canon | journal=The Journal of Theological Studies | volume=76 | issue=1 | date=26 August 2025 | issn=0022-5185 | doi=10.1093/jts/flaf007 | pages=19–31 | url=https://academic.oup.com/jts/article/76/1/19/8016085 | access-date=1 January 2026| url-access=subscription }}</ref>
 
The author of [[Malachi]] may or may not have been identified by the title itself. While often understood as a proper name, its [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] meaning is simply "my messenger" (the [[Septuagint]] translates it as "his messenger"). It was not a proper name at the time of its writing. Jewish tradition states that the book was written by the Scribe [[Ezra]].


Most scholars believe the book underwent multiple stages of redaction.<ref>Kessler, Rainer. 2011. Maleachi. pp. 59–61. ''Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament'', Freiburg, Germany: Herder.</ref> The majority of its text originates in the [[Persian period]]; the oldest portions dating to {{circa|500&nbsp;BCE}}. Later modifications occurred into the [[Hellenistic]] period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schart |first=Aaron |editor=Julia M. O'Brien |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Minor Prophets |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-19-067320-8  |pages=540–542 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190673208.013.32 |quote=Most commentators consider the book of Malachi to be the product of multiple redactional activities (see O'Brien 1990, 51–57; Kessler 2011, 59–61)...In sum, the oldest stratum of the book is likely to date to around 500. Most of the text originates from the Achaemenid period. In general, the Persians pursued a policy of peaceful and harmonious unification of nations under Persian domination. The writing of Malachi seems to accept the Persian rule. Kessler (2011) dates the final form of the writing of Malachi later, in the fourth century. Reflections of Hellenization in the wake of Alexander the Great are rare, however. Noetzel considers Ptolemaic influence for the idea that the "sun of righteousness" brings healing (2015). The appendix in 4:5–6 [Heb. 3:23–24], which refers to a profound generation conflict, resonates with the tensions between those who opened themselves to Hellenization and those who strictly rejected it. Ecclesiasticus 49:10 mentions the "twelve prophets" around 180 BCE, probably presupposing the Book of the Twelve Prophets as a scroll. At this time, the book of Malachi must have been almost finished.}}</ref>
Most scholars believe the book underwent multiple stages of [[Redaction (editorial synthesis)|redaction]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kessler|first1=Rainer|year=2011|chapter=Maleachi|pages=59–61|title=Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament|location=Freiburg, Germany|publisher=Herder}}</ref> The majority of its text originates in the [[Persian period]]; the oldest portions dating to {{circa|500 BCE}}. Later modifications occurred during the [[Hellenistic]] period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schart |first=Aaron |editor=Julia M. O'Brien |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Minor Prophets |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-19-067320-8  |pages=540–542 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190673208.013.32 |quote=Most commentators consider the book of Malachi to be the product of multiple redactional activities (see O'Brien 1990, 51–57; Kessler 2011, 59–61)...In sum, the oldest stratum of the book is likely to date to around 500. Most of the text originates from the Achaemenid period. In general, the Persians pursued a policy of peaceful and harmonious unification of nations under Persian domination. The writing of Malachi seems to accept the Persian rule. Kessler (2011) dates the final form of the writing of Malachi later, in the fourth century. Reflections of Hellenization in the wake of Alexander the Great are rare, however. Noetzel considers Ptolemaic influence for the idea that the "sun of righteousness" brings healing (2015). The appendix in 4:5–6 [Heb. 3:23–24], which refers to a profound generation conflict, resonates with the tensions between those who opened themselves to Hellenization and those who strictly rejected it. Ecclesiasticus 49:10 mentions the "twelve prophets" around 180 BCE, probably presupposing the Book of the Twelve Prophets as a scroll. At this time, the book of Malachi must have been almost finished.}}</ref>


==Oldest surviving manuscripts==
==Oldest surviving manuscripts==
[[File:CodexGigas 119 MinorProphets.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The whole Book of Malachi in [[Latin]] as a part of [[Codex Gigas]], made around the 13th century]]
The oldest surviving [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] manuscripts, containing some or all of this book, are found in the [[Masoretic Text]] tradition, which includes the [[Codex Cairensis]] (895), [[Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus|the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets]] (916), [[Aleppo Codex|the Aleppo Codex]] (tenth century), and [[Leningrad Codex|Codex Leningradensis]] (1008).<ref name="Würthwein">{{cite book |last=Würthwein |first=Ernst |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSNKSBObCYwC |title=The Text of the Old Testament |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1995 |isbn=0-8028-0788-7 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |translator-last1=Rhodes |translator-first1=Erroll F. |access-date=January 26, 2019 |author-link=Ernst Würthwein}}</ref>{{rp|pp=35–37}} Fragments containing parts of this book were also found among [[Dead Sea Scrolls|the Dead Sea Scrolls]] 4Q76 (150–125 BCE) and 4Q78 (75–50 BCE).<ref>{{Cite book
The oldest surviving [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] manuscripts, containing some or all of this book, are found in the [[Masoretic Text]] tradition, which includes the [[Codex Cairensis]] (895), [[Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus|the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets]] (916), [[Aleppo Codex|the Aleppo Codex]] (tenth century), and [[Leningrad Codex|Codex Leningradensis]] (1008).<ref name="Würthwein">{{cite book |last=Würthwein |first=Ernst |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSNKSBObCYwC |title=The Text of the Old Testament |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1995 |isbn=0-8028-0788-7 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |translator-last1=Rhodes |translator-first1=Erroll F. |access-date=January 26, 2019 |authorlink=Ernst Würthwein}}</ref>{{rp|pp=35–37}} Fragments containing parts of this book were also found among [[Dead Sea Scrolls|the Dead Sea Scrolls]] 4Q76 (150–125 BCE) and 4Q78 (75–50 BCE).<ref>{{Cite book
| editor-last  = Ulrich
| editor-last  = Ulrich
| editor-first = Eugene |editor-link= Eugene Ulrich
| editor-first = Eugene |editor-link= Eugene Ulrich
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| publisher    = Brill
| publisher    = Brill
| url          = https://archive.org/details/TheBiblicalQumranScrolls
| url          = https://archive.org/details/TheBiblicalQumranScrolls
| pages        = 623–624}}</ref><ref name="thewaytoyahuweh">[https://thewaytoyahuweh.com/dead-sea-scrolls/general-info/#malachi Dead sea scrolls – Malachi].</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fitzmyer |first=Joseph A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TILXeWJ2eNAC |title=A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |year=2008 |isbn=9780802862419 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |page=38 |authorlink=Joseph Fitzmyer}}</ref>
| pages        = 623–624}}</ref><ref name="thewaytoyahuweh">[https://thewaytoyahuweh.com/dead-sea-scrolls/general-info/#malachi Dead sea scrolls – Malachi].</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fitzmyer |first=Joseph A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TILXeWJ2eNAC |title=A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |year=2008 |isbn=9780802862419 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |page=38 |author-link=Joseph Fitzmyer}}</ref>


A translation of the Hebrew Bible into [[Koine Greek]], known as the [[Septuagint]], was made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include [[Codex Vaticanus]] (fourth century), [[Codex Sinaiticus]] (fourth century), [[Codex Alexandrinus]] (fifth century), and [[Codex Marchalianus]] (sixth century).<ref name="Würthwein" />{{rp|73–74}}
A translation of the Hebrew Bible into [[Koine Greek]], known as the [[Septuagint]], was made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include [[Codex Vaticanus]] (fourth century), [[Codex Sinaiticus]] (fourth century), [[Codex Alexandrinus]] (fifth century), and [[Codex Marchalianus]] (sixth century).<ref name="Würthwein" />{{rp|73–74}}
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The identity of the author of the Book of Malachi is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the author may have been [[Levitical]]. Due to the similarities between Malachi and Ezra's emphasis on forbidding marriage to foreign [[Paganism|pagan]] women, the [[Talmud]] and certain [[Targum]]s, such as [[Targum Jonathan]], identify [[Ezra]] as the author of Malachi. This is the traditional view held by most Jews and some Christians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Megillah 15a, the William Davidson Talmud (Koren – Steinsaltz) |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Megillah.15a.5?lang=bi}}</ref><ref>Introduction to the Aramaic [[Targum]] of [[Jonathan ben Uzziel]] on the Prophet [[Malachi]] (Minor Prophets); [[Joshua ben Karha]] (''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 15a)</ref> The [[Catholic priest]] and historian [[Jerome]] suggests that this may be because Ezra was seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the "great synagogue." According to [[Josephus]], Ezra died and was buried "in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem".<ref>[[Antiquities of the Jews]], book XI, chapter 5, paragraph 5</ref> If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name "Malachi" is correct, then he was likely buried in the [[Tomb of the Prophets]], the traditional resting place of Malachi, [[Haggai]], and [[Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)|Zechariah]].
The identity of the author of the Book of Malachi is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the author may have been [[Levitical]]. Due to the similarities between Malachi and Ezra's emphasis on forbidding marriage to foreign [[Paganism|pagan]] women, the [[Talmud]] and certain [[Targum]]s, such as [[Targum Jonathan]], identify [[Ezra]] as the author of Malachi. This is the traditional view held by most Jews and some Christians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Megillah 15a, the William Davidson Talmud (Koren – Steinsaltz) |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Megillah.15a.5?lang=bi}}</ref><ref>Introduction to the Aramaic [[Targum]] of [[Jonathan ben Uzziel]] on the Prophet [[Malachi]] (Minor Prophets); [[Joshua ben Karha]] (''[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]]'' 15a)</ref> The [[Catholic priest]] and historian [[Jerome]] suggests that this may be because Ezra was seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the "great synagogue." According to [[Josephus]], Ezra died and was buried "in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem".<ref>[[Antiquities of the Jews]], book XI, chapter 5, paragraph 5</ref> If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name "Malachi" is correct, then he was likely buried in the [[Tomb of the Prophets]], the traditional resting place of Malachi, [[Haggai]], and [[Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)|Zechariah]].


The name "Malachi" occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and 3:1, although most consider it unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both references. According to the editors of the 1897 [[Easton's Bible Dictionary]], some scholars believe the name "Malachi" is not a [[proper noun]], but an abbreviation of "messenger of [[Jah|Yah]]."<ref name="Easton">''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/easton/ebd2.html?term=Malachi Malachi]'' at the [[Easton's Bible Dictionary]]</ref> This reading could be based on Malachi 3:1, "Behold, I will send ''my messenger''...", if "my messenger" is taken literally as the name Malachi.<ref name="Malachi" /> Thus, many believe that "Malachi" is an anonymous pseudonym. Other scholars, including the editors of the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', argue that the grammatical evidence leads to the conclusion that Malachi is a name, asserting: "We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name ''Mál'akhîyah'', that is Messenger of [[Jah|Yah]]."<ref name="CathMalachi" />
The name "Malachi" occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and 3:1, although most consider it unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both references. According to the editors of the 1897 [[Easton's Bible Dictionary]], some scholars believe the name "Malachi" is not a [[proper noun]], but an abbreviation of "messenger of [[Jah|Yah]]."<ref name="Easton">''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/easton/ebd2.html?term=Malachi Malachi]'' at the [[Easton's Bible Dictionary]]</ref> This reading could be based on Malachi 3:1, "Behold, I will send ''my messenger''...", if "my messenger" is taken literally as the name Malachi.<ref name="Malachi" /> Thus, many believe that "Malachi" is an anonymous pseudonym. Other scholars, including the editors of the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', argue that the grammatical evidence leads to the conclusion that Malachi is a name, asserting: "We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name ''Mál'akhîyah'', that is Messenger of [[Jah|Yah]]."{{sfn|van Hoonacker|1910}}


Some scholars consider the authorship of [[Zechariah 9]]–[[Zechariah 14|14]] and Malachi to be anonymous which explains their placement at the end of the [[Twelve Minor Prophets]].<ref name="Malachi">{{cite book |last1=Eissfeldt |first1=Otto |title=The Old Testament: An Introduction |date=1965 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=Oxford |page=440}}</ref> [[Julius Wellhausen]], [[Abraham Kuenen]], and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack argue that [[Malachi 1:1]] is a late addition, pointing to [[Zechariah 9:1]] and [[Zechariah 12:1]] as evidence.{{citation needed|date=February 2011}} Another interpretation of the authorship comes from the [[Septuagint]] superscription {{lang|grc|ὲν χειρὶ ἀγγήλου αὐτοῦ}}, which can be read as either "by the hand of his messenger" or as "by the hand of his angel." The "angel" reading found an echo among the ancient [[Church Fathers]] and ecclesiastical writers. It even gave rise to the "strangest fancies," especially among the disciples of [[Origen]].<ref name="CathMalachi">A. VAN HOONACKER, [http://oce.catholic.com/index.php?title=Malachias "Malachias"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708123606/http://oce.catholic.com/index.php?title=Malachias |date=July 8, 2011 }}, ''The Original Catholic Encyclopedia'', retrieved 12 February 2011.</ref><ref name="Jerome">''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.vii.iv.xii.html#vii.iv.xii-p32 Prefaces to the Commentaries on the Minor Prophets.]'', [[Jerome]], 406: ''[[Origen of Alexandria|Origen]] and his followers believe that (according to his name) he was an angel. But we reject this view altogether, lest we be compelled to accept the doctrine of the fall of souls from heaven.''</ref>
Some scholars consider the authorship of [[Zechariah 9]]–[[Zechariah 14|14]] and Malachi to be anonymous which explains their placement at the end of the [[Twelve Minor Prophets]].<ref name="Malachi">{{cite book |last1=Eissfeldt |first1=Otto |title=The Old Testament: An Introduction |date=1965 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |location=Oxford |page=440}}</ref> [[Julius Wellhausen]], [[Abraham Kuenen]], and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack argue that [[Malachi 1:1]] is a late addition, pointing to [[Zechariah 9:1]] and [[Zechariah 12:1]] as evidence.{{citation needed|date=February 2011}} Another interpretation of the authorship comes from the [[Septuagint]] superscription {{lang|grc|ὲν χειρὶ ἀγγήλου αὐτοῦ}}, which can be read as either "by the hand of his messenger" or as "by the hand of his angel." The "angel" reading found an echo among the ancient [[Church Fathers]] and ecclesiastical writers. It even gave rise to the "strangest fancies," especially among the disciples of [[Origen]].{{sfn|van Hoonacker|1910}}<ref name="Jerome">{{citation| author=Jerome |author-link=Jerome |url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206/npnf206. |orig-date=406 |title=The Principal Works of St. Jerome |editor=Philip Schaff |date=1892 |website=Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.vii.iv.xii.html#vii.iv.xii-p32 p. 501]: ''[[Origen of Alexandria|Origen]] and his followers believe that (according to his name) he was an angel. But we reject this view altogether, lest we be compelled to accept the doctrine of the fall of souls from heaven.''</ref>


==Period==
==Period==
The Book of Malachi contains a few historical details. A clue as to its dating lies in the fact that the Persian-era term for governor ({{langx|arc|פח|translit=peḥ}}) is used in 1:8 to refer to the governor of Judah. This points to a [[Jewish history|post-exilic]] (that is, after 538 BCE) date of composition both because of the use of this term and because [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] had a king before the exile. Moreover, because the same verse alludes to the rebuilt temple, the book must date to after 515 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament|last1=LaSor|first1=William Sanford|last2=Hubbard|first2=David Allan|last3=Bush|first3=Frederic William|last4=Allen|first4=Leslie C.|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|date=3 Sep 1996|isbn=9780802837882|pages=415}}</ref> The author of the [[Book of Sirach]], written early in the second century BCE, apparently knew of Malachi. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position after the [[Book of Haggai]] and the [[Book of Zechariah]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/haggai-zechariah-and-malachi-back-in-the-land/|title=Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi: Back in the Land {{!}} My Jewish Learning|work=My Jewish Learning|access-date=2018-05-10|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hatanakh.com/en/tags/malachi|title=Malachi {{!}} התנך|website=www.hatanakh.com|language=en|access-date=2018-05-10}}</ref> close to the time when Ezra and [[Nehemiah]]<ref name=":0" /> came to [[Jerusalem]] in 445 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cheyne|first=T. K.|date=1899|title=The Times of Nehemiah and Ezra|jstor=3137145|journal=The Biblical World|volume=14|issue=4|pages=238–250|doi=10.1086/472543|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The Book of Malachi contains a few historical details. A clue as to its dating lies in the author's use of a loaned form of the [[Imperial Aramaic]] term for 'governor' ({{langx|label=none|arc|פחה|rtl=yes|translit=paḥā}}) to refer to the contemporary governor of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] ({{langx|hbo|rtl=yes|translit=lefeḥāthekha|translation=to your governor|לְפֶחָתֶךָ}}) in chapter 1:8.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mal|1:8|HE}}</ref> This indicates a post-[[Babylonian exile]] date of composition (i.e., after 538 BCE), based on the use of this term and the fact that Judah had a king before the exile. Additionally, since the same verse references the rebuilt [[Temple in Jerusalem]], the book must have been written after 515 BCE during the [[Second Temple period]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament|last1=LaSor|first1=William Sanford|last2=Hubbard|first2=David Allan|last3=Bush|first3=Frederic William|last4=Allen|first4=Leslie C.|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|date=3 Sep 1996|isbn=9780802837882|pages=415}}</ref> The author of the [[Book of Sirach]], written early in the second century BCE, apparently knew of Malachi. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position after the [[Book of Haggai]] and the [[Book of Zechariah]],<ref>{{Cite news |first=W. Gunther |last=Plaut|url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/haggai-zechariah-and-malachi-back-in-the-land/|title=Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi: Back in the Land |work=My Jewish Learning|access-date=2018-05-10|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hatanakh.com/en/tags/malachi|title=Malachi {{!}} התנך|website=www.hatanakh.com|language=en|access-date=2018-05-10}}</ref> close to the time when Ezra and [[Nehemiah]]<ref name=":0" /> came to [[Jerusalem]] in 445 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cheyne|first=T. K.|date=1899|title=The Times of Nehemiah and Ezra|jstor=3137145|journal=The Biblical World|volume=14|issue=4|pages=238–250|doi=10.1086/472543|doi-access=free}}</ref>


==Aim==
==Aim==
The Book of Malachi was written to correct what the author saw as the lax religious and social behavior of the [[Israelite]]s—particularly the priests—in [[Second Temple period|post-exilic]] [[Jerusalem]]. Although the prophets urged the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Israel]] to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their [[Mosaic covenant|covenant with God]], it was not long after they had been returned to the [[Land of Israel|land]], the [[Second Temple]] built, and proper worship restored, that the people's commitment to their God began to wane once again. It was in this context that the prophet, commonly referred to as Malachi, delivered his prophecy.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}
The Book of Malachi was written to correct what the author saw as the lax religious and social behavior of the [[Israelite]]s—particularly the priests—in [[Second Temple period|post-exilic]] [[Jerusalem]]. Although the prophets urged the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Israel]] to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their [[Mosaic covenant|covenant with God]], it was not long after they had been returned to the [[Land of Israel|land]], the [[Second Temple]] built, and proper worship restored, that the people's commitment to their God began to wane once again. It was in this context that the prophet, commonly referred to as Malachi, delivered his prophecy.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}


In 1:2, Malachi portrays the people of Israel as questioning God's love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation that Malachi addresses, as does dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi accuses his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way this disrespect manifests is through the substandard sacrifices that Malachi claims the priests offer. While God demands animals that are "without blemish" ([[Leviticus]] 1:3, [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]]), the priests, who were "to determine whether the animal was acceptable" (Mason 143),{{full citation needed|date=April 2025}} were offering blind, lame, and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.
In 1:2, Malachi portrays the people of Israel as questioning God's love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation that Malachi addresses, as does dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi accuses his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way this disrespect manifests is through the substandard sacrifices that Malachi claims the priests offer. While God demands animals that are "without blemish" ([[Leviticus]] 1:3, [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]]), the priests, who were "to determine whether the animal was acceptable"{{sfn|Mason|1977|p=143}} were offering blind, lame, and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.


In 2:1, Malachi states that ''[[Yahweh|Yahweh Sabaoth]]'' is sending a curse on the priests who have not honoured him with appropriate animal sacrifices: "Now, watch how I am going to paralyze your arm and throw dung in your face—the dung from your very solemnities—and sweep you away with it. Then you shall learn that it is I who have given you this warning of my intention to abolish my covenant with Levi, says ''Yahweh Sabaoth''."
In 2:1, Malachi states that ''[[Yahweh|Yahweh Sabaoth]]'' is sending a curse on the priests who have not honoured him with appropriate animal sacrifices: "Now, watch how I am going to paralyze your arm and throw dung in your face—the dung from your very solemnities—and sweep you away with it. Then you shall learn that it is I who have given you this warning of my intention to abolish my covenant with Levi, says ''Yahweh Sabaoth''."


In 2:10–11, Malachi addresses the issue of [[divorce]]. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem ("Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?") and as a religious problem ("Judah...has married the daughter of a foreign god"). In contrast to the [[Book of Ezra]] Malachi urges each to remain steadfast to the wife of his youth.
In 2:10–11, Malachi addresses the issue of [[divorce]]. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem ("Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?") and as a religious problem ("Judah...has married the daughter of a foreign god"). In contrast to the [[Book of Ezra]], Malachi urges each to remain steadfast to the wife of his youth.


Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God's justice. He reminds them that God is just and exhorts them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi states that the people have not been faithful and have not given God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full [[tithe]] to God.
Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God's justice. He reminds them that God is just and exhorts them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi states that the people have not been faithful and have not given God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full [[tithe]] to God.


==Interpretations==
==Interpretations==
The Book of Malachi is divided into three chapters in the [[Hebrew Bible]] and [[Septuagint]], and four in the [[Latin Vulgate]]. The fourth chapter in the Vulgate consists of the remainder of the third chapter, starting at verse 3:19.
===Judaism===
In Judaism the book is known as "the seal of the prophets" because it brings the books of biblical prophecy to a close.<ref>Holyhead, V. (2006), [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Welcoming-Word-Year-Burning-Hearts/dp/0814618340/ref=sr_1_1 Welcoming the Word in Year C: With Burning Hearts], p. 174, [[Liturgical Press]], Collegeville, Minnesota</ref>


===Christianity===
===Christianity===
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| [[Malachi 4:1|4:1]]–5 (3:19–24 in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) || The Great Day of the Lord </tr>
| [[Malachi 4:1|4:1]]–5 (3:19–24 in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) || The Great Day of the Lord </tr>
|}
|}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2025}}
The majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles.{{sfn|Hill|1998}}<ref name="Stuart1998">{{cite book |last=Stuart |first=Douglas |chapter=Malachi |date=1998 |title=The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-0801036316 |editor-last=McComiskey |editor-first=Thomas Edward |pages=1245–1396 }}</ref> According to this scheme, the Book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] and the various groups within the [[Israelite]] community. In the book's three or four chapters, Yahweh is vindicated, while those who do not adhere to the [[Mosaic Law]] are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a [[Suzerainty|suzerain treaty]], or a [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]]—one of the major themes throughout the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Implicit in the prophet's condemnation of Israel's religious practices is a call to keep Yahweh's statutes.
The majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles.<ref name="Hill19983">{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Andrew E. |title=Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary |publisher=Doubleday |year=1998 |isbn=978-0385412717 |series=Anchor Bible |volume=25D |location=New York}}</ref> <ref name="Stuart1998">{{cite book |last=Stuart |first=Douglas |title=Malachi |date=1998 |work=The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-0801036316 |editor-last=McComiskey |editor-first=Thomas Edward |pages=1245–1396 }}</ref> According to this scheme, the Book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] and the various groups within the [[Israelite]] community. In the book's three or four chapters, Yahweh is vindicated, while those who do not adhere to the [[Mosaic Law]] are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a [[Suzerainty|suzerain treaty]], or a [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]]—one of the major themes throughout the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Implicit in the prophet's condemnation of Israel's religious practices is a call to keep Yahweh's statutes.


The Book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Hebrew Bible. Malachi appeals to the rivalry between [[Jacob and Esau]] and Yahweh's preference for Jacob contained in the [[Book of Genesis]] 25–28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob ([[Israel]]), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God's chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the [[Holiness code|Levitical Code]] (e.g., [[Leviticus 1]]:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.
The Book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Hebrew Bible. Malachi appeals to the rivalry between [[Jacob and Esau]] and Yahweh's preference for Jacob contained in the [[Book of Genesis]] 25–28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob ([[Israel]]), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God's chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the [[Holiness code|Levitical Code]] (e.g., [[Leviticus 1]]:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.
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In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the Book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which [[Ezra]] vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of Jewish wives (a practice which Ezra promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, "For I hate divorce, says the Lord..." (2:16).
In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the Book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which [[Ezra]] vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of Jewish wives (a practice which Ezra promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, "For I hate divorce, says the Lord..." (2:16).


In many places throughout the [[Hebrew Bible]]—particularly the [[Book of Hosea]]—Israel is figured as Yahweh's wife or bride. Malachi's discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could be urging his audience not to break faith in Yahweh (the God of Israel) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that since the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] were questioning Yahweh's love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might have been tempted to adopt foreign gods. [[William Sanford LaSor]], an American Christian [[pastor]], suggests that because the restoration to the land of Judah had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendour of the [[messiah|Messianic Age]], which had been foretold, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.<ref>{{cite book |last=LaSor |first=William Sanford |title=Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament |author2=David Allan Hubbard |author3=Frederic William Bush |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1996 |isbn=978-0802837882 |location=Grand Rapids |pages=584–586}}</ref>
In many places throughout the [[Hebrew Bible]], particularly in the [[Book of Hosea]], Israel is figured as Yahweh's wife or bride. Malachi's discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could be urging his audience not to break faith in Yahweh (the God of Israel) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that since the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] were questioning Yahweh's love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might have been tempted to adopt foreign gods. [[William Sanford LaSor]], an American Christian [[pastor]], suggests that because the restoration to the land of Judah had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendour of the [[messiah|Messianic Age]], which had been foretold, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.<ref>{{cite book |last=LaSor |first=William Sanford |title=Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament |author2=David Allan Hubbard |author3=Frederic William Bush |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1996 |isbn=978-0802837882 |location=Grand Rapids |pages=584–586}}</ref>


[[File:Gustave Doré Malachiáš 3.1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Illustration of the coming of God's Messenger in 3:1, by [[Franciszek Żmurko]]]]
[[File:Gustave Doré Malachiáš 3.1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Illustration of the coming of God's Messenger in 3:1, by [[Franciszek Żmurko]]]]
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In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to "Remember the teaching of my servant [[Moses]], that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at [[Mount Horeb|Horeb]] for all Israel" (4:4; 3:22, [[Masoretic Text|MT]]). Before the [[Last Judgment|Day of the Lord]], Malachi declares that [[Elijah]] (who "ascended in a whirlwind into heaven..." 2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] 2:11) will return to earth so that people might follow in God's ways.
In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to "Remember the teaching of my servant [[Moses]], that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at [[Mount Horeb|Horeb]] for all Israel" (4:4; 3:22, [[Masoretic Text|MT]]). Before the [[Last Judgment|Day of the Lord]], Malachi declares that [[Elijah]] (who "ascended in a whirlwind into heaven..." 2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] 2:11) will return to earth so that people might follow in God's ways.


The Book of Malachi is frequently cited in the Christian New Testament, primarily due to its messianic themes. The following is a brief comparison between the Book of Malachi and the New Testament passages that reference it, as outlined by Hill 84-88.<ref name="Hill19984" />
The Book of Malachi is frequently cited in the Christian New Testament, primarily due to its messianic themes. The following is a brief comparison between the Book of Malachi and the New Testament passages that reference it.{{sfn|Hill|1998|pp=84-88}}


[[File:Lorch St.Laurenz - Fenster 2 Malachias.jpg|thumb|Quotation from Malachi 3:1 in an Austrian church: "The Lord shall come to his temple."]]
[[File:Lorch St.Laurenz - Fenster 2 Malachias.jpg|thumb|Quotation from Malachi 3:1 in an Austrian church: "The Lord shall come to his temple."]]
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| "the table of [[Yahweh|YHWH]]" (1:7,12)  || "the table of the Lord" ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] [[1 Corinthians 10|10]]:21)
| "the table of [[Yahweh|YHWH]]" (1:7,12)  || "the table of the Lord" ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] [[1 Corinthians 10|10]]:21)
|-
|-
| "For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations," (1:11) || "so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you" ([[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] [[2 Thessalonians 1|1]]:12)
| rowspan="2" | "For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations," (1:11) || "so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you" ([[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] [[2 Thessalonians 1|1]]:12)
|-
|-
|  || "Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?" ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] [[Revelation 15|15]]:4)
| "Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?" ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] [[Revelation 15|15]]:4)
|-
|-
| "For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts," (2:7–8)  || "therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 23|23]]:3)
| "For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts," (2:7–8)  || "therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 23|23]]:3)
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| "Have we not all one father?" (2:10) || "yet for us there is one God, the Father" ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] [[1 Corinthians 8|8]]:6)
| "Have we not all one father?" (2:10) || "yet for us there is one God, the Father" ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] [[1 Corinthians 8|8]]:6)
|-
|-
| "See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me" ([[Malachi 3:1|3:1]]) || "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way" ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] [[Mark 1:2|1:2]])
| rowspan="2" | "See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me" ([[Malachi 3:1|3:1]]) || "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way" ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] [[Mark 1:2|1:2]])
|-
|-
|  || "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 11:10|11:10]]†, [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [[Luke 7|7]]:27)
| "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you" ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 11:10|11:10]]†, [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [[Luke 7|7]]:27)
|-
|-
| "But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?" (3:2) || "for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?" ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] [[Revelation 6|6]]:17)
| "But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?" (3:2) || "for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?" ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] [[Revelation 6|6]]:17)
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| "But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise," (4:2) || "By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us," ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [[Luke 1|1]]:78)
| "But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise," (4:2) || "By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us," ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [[Luke 1|1]]:78)
|-
|-
| "Behold, I will send you [[Elijah]] the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come." (4:5) || "he is Elijah who is to come." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 11:14|11:14]])
| rowspan="3" | "Behold, I will send you [[Elijah]] the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come." (4:5) || "he is Elijah who is to come." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 11:14|11:14]])
|-
|-
|  || "Elijah has already come," ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 17|17]]:12)
| "Elijah has already come," ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] [[Matthew 17|17]]:12)
|-
|-
|  || "Elijah has come," ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] [[Mark 9|9]]:13)
| "Elijah has come," ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] [[Mark 9|9]]:13)
|-
|-
| "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah comes. And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers; lest I come and smite the earth with a curse." (4:5–6) || "With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous," ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [[Luke 1|1]]:17)
| "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah comes. And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers; lest I come and smite the earth with a curse." (4:5–6) || "With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous," ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [[Luke 1|1]]:17)
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Although many Christians believe that the [[messiah|messianic]] prophecies of the Book of Malachi have been fulfilled in [[Jesus]]'s life, religious Jews, who do not share that belief with Christians, continue to await the coming of the prophet [[Elijah]], who will prepare the way for the [[Messiah in Judaism|Messiah]].
Although many Christians believe that the [[messiah|messianic]] prophecies of the Book of Malachi have been fulfilled in [[Jesus]]'s life, religious Jews, who do not share that belief with Christians, continue to await the coming of the prophet [[Elijah]], who will prepare the way for the [[Messiah in Judaism|Messiah]].
==Notes==
{{notelist}}


==References==
==References==
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==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
* Hill, Andrew E. ''Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary''. The Anchor Bible Volume 25D. Toronto, Canada: Doubleday, 1998.
* {{citation |last=Hill |first=Andrew E. |title=Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary |series=The Anchor Bible |volume=25D |publisher=Doubleday |place=Toronto |year=1998 |isbn=9780385468923}}.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* {{citation |last=LaSor |first=William Sanford |last2=Hubbard |first2=David Allan |last3=Bush |first3=Frederic William |title=Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |place=Grand Rapids, Michigan |year=1996 |isbn=9780802835567}}
* Mason, Rex. ''The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi''. The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1977.
* {{citation |last=Mason |first=Rex |title=The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi |series=The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible |place=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1977 |url=https://archive.org/details/booksofhaggaizec0000unse}}.
* Singer, Isidore & [[Adolf Guttmacher]]. "Book of Malachi." ''[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/ JewishEncyclopedia.com]''. 2002.
* {{citation |last=Singer |first=Isidore |last2=Guttmacher |first2=Adolf |author2-link=Adolf Guttmacher |title=Book of Malachi |work=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of |year=1906}}.
* [[Van Hoonacker, A.]] "Malachias (Malachi)." ''[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)|Catholic Encyclopedia]]''. Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress. 2003.
* {{CathEncy|wstitle= Malachias |volume= 9 |pages= |last= van Hoonacker |first= Albin |author-link= Albin van Hoonacker | short=}}


==External links==
==External links==
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[[Category:Twelve Minor Prophets|12]]
[[Category:Twelve Minor Prophets|12]]
[[Category:Septuagint]]
[[Category:Septuagint]]
[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Books of the Bible]]
[[Category:Books of the Bible]]

Latest revision as of 20:46, 29 April 2026

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Template:Infobox religious text Template:Tanakh OT The Book of Malachi (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) is the last book of the Nevi'im in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and canonically the final book of the Twelve Minor Prophets. In most Christian traditions, the prophetic books form the last section of the Old Testament, making Malachi the last book before the New Testament. The book is divided into three chapters in the Hebrew Bible and Septuagint, and four in the Latin Vulgate. The fourth chapter in the Vulgate consists of the remainder of the third chapter, starting at verse 3:19.[1]

The author of the text may or may not have been an eponymous figure named Malachi. While often regarded as a proper name, the meaning of the word is simply "my messenger" in the Hebrew language,[2] and the Septuagint translation renders it as "his messenger." During the time the text was written, it was not used as a personal name.[citation needed] In tractate Megillah 15a of the Talmud,[3] Rabbi Joshua ben Karha and Rav Nachman—both Tannaim—taught that the book was authored by Ezra the Scribe, a prominent scholar and kohen who played a significant role in shaping Jewish religious law (Halakha) and tradition.[4]

Most scholars believe the book underwent multiple stages of redaction.[5] The majority of its text originates in the Persian period; the oldest portions dating to c. 500 BCE. Later modifications occurred during the Hellenistic period.[6]

Oldest surviving manuscripts

The oldest surviving Hebrew manuscripts, containing some or all of this book, are found in the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), the Aleppo Codex (tenth century), and Codex Leningradensis (1008).[7]: 35–37  Fragments containing parts of this book were also found among the Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q76 (150–125 BCE) and 4Q78 (75–50 BCE).[8][9][10]

A translation of the Hebrew Bible into Koine Greek, known as the Septuagint, was made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (fourth century), Codex Sinaiticus (fourth century), Codex Alexandrinus (fifth century), and Codex Marchalianus (sixth century).[7]: 73–74 

Authorship

The identity of the author of the Book of Malachi is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the author may have been Levitical. Due to the similarities between Malachi and Ezra's emphasis on forbidding marriage to foreign pagan women, the Talmud and certain Targums, such as Targum Jonathan, identify Ezra as the author of Malachi. This is the traditional view held by most Jews and some Christians.[11][12] The Catholic priest and historian Jerome suggests that this may be because Ezra was seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the "great synagogue." According to Josephus, Ezra died and was buried "in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem".[13] If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name "Malachi" is correct, then he was likely buried in the Tomb of the Prophets, the traditional resting place of Malachi, Haggai, and Zechariah.

The name "Malachi" occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and 3:1, although most consider it unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both references. According to the editors of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary, some scholars believe the name "Malachi" is not a proper noun, but an abbreviation of "messenger of Yah."[14] This reading could be based on Malachi 3:1, "Behold, I will send my messenger...", if "my messenger" is taken literally as the name Malachi.[15] Thus, many believe that "Malachi" is an anonymous pseudonym. Other scholars, including the editors of the Catholic Encyclopedia, argue that the grammatical evidence leads to the conclusion that Malachi is a name, asserting: "We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name Mál'akhîyah, that is Messenger of Yah."[16]

Some scholars consider the authorship of Zechariah 9–14 and Malachi to be anonymous which explains their placement at the end of the Twelve Minor Prophets.[15] Julius Wellhausen, Abraham Kuenen, and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack argue that Malachi 1:1 is a late addition, pointing to Zechariah 9:1 and Zechariah 12:1 as evidence.[citation needed] Another interpretation of the authorship comes from the Septuagint superscription ὲν χειρὶ ἀγγήλου αὐτοῦ, which can be read as either "by the hand of his messenger" or as "by the hand of his angel." The "angel" reading found an echo among the ancient Church Fathers and ecclesiastical writers. It even gave rise to the "strangest fancies," especially among the disciples of Origen.[16][17]

Period

The Book of Malachi contains a few historical details. A clue as to its dating lies in the author's use of a loaned form of the Imperial Aramaic term for 'governor' (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) to refer to the contemporary governor of Judah (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) in chapter 1:8.[18] This indicates a post-Babylonian exile date of composition (i.e., after 538 BCE), based on the use of this term and the fact that Judah had a king before the exile. Additionally, since the same verse references the rebuilt Temple in Jerusalem, the book must have been written after 515 BCE during the Second Temple period.[19] The author of the Book of Sirach, written early in the second century BCE, apparently knew of Malachi. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position after the Book of Haggai and the Book of Zechariah,[20][21] close to the time when Ezra and Nehemiah[21] came to Jerusalem in 445 BCE.[22]

Aim

The Book of Malachi was written to correct what the author saw as the lax religious and social behavior of the Israelites—particularly the priests—in post-exilic Jerusalem. Although the prophets urged the people of Judah and Israel to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their covenant with God, it was not long after they had been returned to the land, the Second Temple built, and proper worship restored, that the people's commitment to their God began to wane once again. It was in this context that the prophet, commonly referred to as Malachi, delivered his prophecy.[citation needed]

In 1:2, Malachi portrays the people of Israel as questioning God's love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation that Malachi addresses, as does dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi accuses his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way this disrespect manifests is through the substandard sacrifices that Malachi claims the priests offer. While God demands animals that are "without blemish" (Leviticus 1:3, NRSV), the priests, who were "to determine whether the animal was acceptable"[23] were offering blind, lame, and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.

In 2:1, Malachi states that Yahweh Sabaoth is sending a curse on the priests who have not honoured him with appropriate animal sacrifices: "Now, watch how I am going to paralyze your arm and throw dung in your face—the dung from your very solemnities—and sweep you away with it. Then you shall learn that it is I who have given you this warning of my intention to abolish my covenant with Levi, says Yahweh Sabaoth."

In 2:10–11, Malachi addresses the issue of divorce. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem ("Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?") and as a religious problem ("Judah...has married the daughter of a foreign god"). In contrast to the Book of Ezra, Malachi urges each to remain steadfast to the wife of his youth.

Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God's justice. He reminds them that God is just and exhorts them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi states that the people have not been faithful and have not given God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full tithe to God.

Interpretations

Judaism

In Judaism the book is known as "the seal of the prophets" because it brings the books of biblical prophecy to a close.[24]

Christianity

The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows:

Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV
Verse Reference Heading
1:1 (Superscription)
1:2–2:9 Israel Preferred to Edom
2:10–17 The Covenant Profaned by Judah
3:1–7 The Coming Messenger
3:8–18 Do Not Rob God
4:1–5 (3:19–24 in Hebrew) The Great Day of the Lord

The majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles.[25][26] According to this scheme, the Book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between Yahweh and the various groups within the Israelite community. In the book's three or four chapters, Yahweh is vindicated, while those who do not adhere to the Mosaic Law are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty, or a covenant—one of the major themes throughout the Hebrew Bible. Implicit in the prophet's condemnation of Israel's religious practices is a call to keep Yahweh's statutes.

The Book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Hebrew Bible. Malachi appeals to the rivalry between Jacob and Esau and Yahweh's preference for Jacob contained in the Book of Genesis 25–28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob (Israel), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God's chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the Levitical Code (e.g., Leviticus 1:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.

In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the Book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which Ezra vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of Jewish wives (a practice which Ezra promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, "For I hate divorce, says the Lord..." (2:16).

In many places throughout the Hebrew Bible, particularly in the Book of Hosea, Israel is figured as Yahweh's wife or bride. Malachi's discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could be urging his audience not to break faith in Yahweh (the God of Israel) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that since the people of Judah were questioning Yahweh's love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might have been tempted to adopt foreign gods. William Sanford LaSor, an American Christian pastor, suggests that because the restoration to the land of Judah had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendour of the Messianic Age, which had been foretold, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.[27]

File:Gustave Doré Malachiáš 3.1.jpg
Illustration of the coming of God's Messenger in 3:1, by Franciszek Żmurko

Indeed, the fourth dispute asserts that judgment is coming in the form of a messenger who "is like refiner's fire and like fullers' soap..." (3:2).

Following this, the prophet provides another example of wrongdoing in the fifth dispute: failing to offer full tithes. In this discussion, Malachi has Yahweh request that the people "Bring the full tithe ... [and] see if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down on you an overflowing blessing" (3:10). This request offers the opportunity for the people to amend their ways. It also stresses that keeping the Lord's statutes will allow the people to avoid God's wrath and lead to God's blessing. It is this portion of Malachi that supports the view that tithing remains one of the Hebrew Biblical commandments Christians must observe.[citation needed]

In the sixth dispute, the people of Israel illustrate the extent of their disillusionment. According to Malachi, they say, "'It is vain to serve God ... Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape'" (3:14–15). Once again, Yahweh assures the people that the wicked will be punished and the faithful will be rewarded.

In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to "Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel" (4:4; 3:22, MT). Before the Day of the Lord, Malachi declares that Elijah (who "ascended in a whirlwind into heaven..." 2 Kings 2:11) will return to earth so that people might follow in God's ways.

The Book of Malachi is frequently cited in the Christian New Testament, primarily due to its messianic themes. The following is a brief comparison between the Book of Malachi and the New Testament passages that reference it.[28]

File:Lorch St.Laurenz - Fenster 2 Malachias.jpg
Quotation from Malachi 3:1 in an Austrian church: "The Lord shall come to his temple."
References to the Book of Malachi in the New Testament (NRSV)
Malachi New Testament
"Yet I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau." (1:2–3) "'I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau.'" (Romans 9:13)
"And if I am a master, where is the respect due me?" (1:6) "Why do you call me, 'Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I tell you?" (Luke 6:46)
"the table of YHWH" (1:7,12) "the table of the Lord" (1 Corinthians 10:21)
"For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations," (1:11) "so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you" (2 Thessalonians 1:12)
"Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?" (Revelation 15:4)
"For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts," (2:7–8) "therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach" (Matthew 23:3)
"Have we not all one father?" (2:10) "yet for us there is one God, the Father" (1 Corinthians 8:6)
"See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me" (3:1) "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way" (Mark 1:2)
"See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you" (Matthew 11:10†, Luke 7:27)
"But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?" (3:2) "for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?" (Revelation 6:17)
"and he will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver" (3:3) "so that the genuineness of your faith . . . being more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire . . ." (1 Peter 1:7)
"against those who oppress the hired workers in their wages" (3:5) "Listen! The wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud" (James 5:4)
"For I, Jehovah, change not;" (3:6) "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever." (Hebrews 13:8)
"Return to me, and I will return to you," (3:7) "Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you" (James 4:8)
"But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise," (4:2) "By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us," (Luke 1:78)
"Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come." (4:5) "he is Elijah who is to come." (Matthew 11:14)
"Elijah has already come," (Matthew 17:12)
"Elijah has come," (Mark 9:13)
"Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah comes. And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers; lest I come and smite the earth with a curse." (4:5–6) "With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous," (Luke 1:17)

Although many Christians believe that the messianic prophecies of the Book of Malachi have been fulfilled in Jesus's life, religious Jews, who do not share that belief with Christians, continue to await the coming of the prophet Elijah, who will prepare the way for the Messiah.

Notes

References

  1. ↑ Malachi 4:1–6
  2. ↑ Template:Tanakhverse
  3. ↑ Template:Cite Talmud
  4. ↑ Kalimi, Isaac (26 August 2025). "The Book of Malachi: Its Place in the Twelve Minor Prophets, in Jewish and in Christian Canon". The Journal of Theological Studies. 76 (1): 19–31. doi:10.1093/jts/flaf007. ISSN 0022-5185. Retrieved 1 January 2026.
  5. ↑ Kessler, Rainer (2011). "Maleachi". Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg, Germany: Herder. pp. 59–61.
  6. ↑ Schart, Aaron (2021). Julia M. O'Brien (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Minor Prophets. Oxford University Press. pp. 540–542. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190673208.013.32. ISBN 978-0-19-067320-8. Most commentators consider the book of Malachi to be the product of multiple redactional activities (see O'Brien 1990, 51–57; Kessler 2011, 59–61)...In sum, the oldest stratum of the book is likely to date to around 500. Most of the text originates from the Achaemenid period. In general, the Persians pursued a policy of peaceful and harmonious unification of nations under Persian domination. The writing of Malachi seems to accept the Persian rule. Kessler (2011) dates the final form of the writing of Malachi later, in the fourth century. Reflections of Hellenization in the wake of Alexander the Great are rare, however. Noetzel considers Ptolemaic influence for the idea that the "sun of righteousness" brings healing (2015). The appendix in 4:5–6 [Heb. 3:23–24], which refers to a profound generation conflict, resonates with the tensions between those who opened themselves to Hellenization and those who strictly rejected it. Ecclesiasticus 49:10 mentions the "twelve prophets" around 180 BCE, probably presupposing the Book of the Twelve Prophets as a scroll. At this time, the book of Malachi must have been almost finished.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Würthwein, Ernst (1995). The Text of the Old Testament. Translated by Rhodes, Erroll F. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-0788-7. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
  8. ↑ Ulrich, Eugene, ed. (2010). The Biblical Qumran Scrolls: Transcriptions and Textual Variants. Brill. pp. 623–624.
  9. ↑ Dead sea scrolls – Malachi.
  10. ↑ Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 38. ISBN 9780802862419.
  11. ↑ "Megillah 15a, the William Davidson Talmud (Koren – Steinsaltz)".
  12. ↑ Introduction to the Aramaic Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel on the Prophet Malachi (Minor Prophets); Joshua ben Karha (Megillah 15a)
  13. ↑ Antiquities of the Jews, book XI, chapter 5, paragraph 5
  14. ↑ Malachi at the Easton's Bible Dictionary
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Eissfeldt, Otto (1965). The Old Testament: An Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 440.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 van Hoonacker 1910.
  17. ↑ Jerome (1892) [406], Philip Schaff (ed.), "The Principal Works of St. Jerome", Christian Classics Ethereal Library, p. 501: Origen and his followers believe that (according to his name) he was an angel. But we reject this view altogether, lest we be compelled to accept the doctrine of the fall of souls from heaven.
  18. ↑ Mal 1:8
  19. ↑ LaSor, William Sanford; Hubbard, David Allan; Bush, Frederic William; Allen, Leslie C. (3 Sep 1996). Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 415. ISBN 9780802837882.
  20. ↑ Plaut, W. Gunther. "Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi: Back in the Land". My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 2018-05-10.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Malachi | התנך". www.hatanakh.com. Retrieved 2018-05-10.
  22. ↑ Cheyne, T. K. (1899). "The Times of Nehemiah and Ezra". The Biblical World. 14 (4): 238–250. doi:10.1086/472543. JSTOR 3137145.
  23. ↑ Mason 1977, p. 143.
  24. ↑ Holyhead, V. (2006), Welcoming the Word in Year C: With Burning Hearts, p. 174, Liturgical Press, Collegeville, Minnesota
  25. ↑ Hill 1998.
  26. ↑ Stuart, Douglas (1998). "Malachi". In McComiskey, Thomas Edward (ed.). The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. Baker Academic. pp. 1245–1396. ISBN 978-0801036316.
  27. ↑ LaSor, William Sanford; David Allan Hubbard; Frederic William Bush (1996). Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. pp. 584–586. ISBN 978-0802837882.
  28. ↑ Hill 1998, pp. 84–88.

Bibliography

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