Breton language

Template:Infobox language Breton is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language group spoken in Brittany, part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still in use on the European mainland.

Breton is an Insular Celtic language that was brought from Great Britain to Brittany by migrating Britons during the Early Middle Ages, which makes Breton most closely related to Cornish, another Southwestern Brittonic language. Welsh and the extinct Cumbric, both Western Brittonic languages, are more distantly related, and the Goidelic languages (Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic) have a slight connection due to their origins being from Insular Celtic.

Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to 107,000 in 2024, Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. The number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.

History and status

See also: Linguistic boundary of Brittany

Breton is spoken in Lower Brittany (), roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha (west of Saint-Brieuc) and La Roche-Bernard (east of Vannes). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain to Armorica (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in Galicia (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century. It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the bourgeoisie, adopted French. The written language of the Duchy of Brittany was Latin until it switched to French in the 15th century. There is a limited tradition of Breton literature. Some philosophical and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are Old Breton – c. 800 to c. 1100, Middle Breton – c. 1100 to c. 1650, Modern Breton – c. 1650 to present.

The French monarchy was not concerned with the minority languages of France, which were spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the French Revolution, the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as patois. The revolutionaries assumed that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages to keep the peasant masses underinformed. In 1794, Bertrand Barère submitted his "report on the patois" to the Committee of Public Safety in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".

Since the 19th century, under the Third, Fourth and now Fifth Republics, the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s.

In the early 21st century, the political centralization of France, the influence of the media and the increasing mobility of people have caused only about 200,000 people to be active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. Most of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an endangered language.

In the early 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, and the rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15-to 19-year-olds spoke Breton. In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.

Revival efforts

File:Affiche Charrue Huard.jpg

1911 poster with Breton slogan, Burzudus eo!! ("It's miraculous!!")

In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded the Breton-language review Gwalarn. During its 19-year run, Gwalarn tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language. Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946, Al Liamm replaced Gwalarn. Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.

In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully-immersive primary school and partially-immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.

The Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including The Adventures of Tintin, Spirou, Titeuf, Hägar the Horrible, Peanuts and Yakari.

Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom Ken Tuch is in Breton. Radio Kerne, broadcasting from Finistère, has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies (Lancelot du Lac, Shakespeare in Love, Marion du Faouet, Sezneg) and TV series (Columbo, Perry Mason) have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including Yann-Ber Kallocʼh, Roparz Hemon, Añjela Duval, Xavier de Langlais, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Youenn Gwernig, Glenmor, Vefa de Saint-Pierre and Alan Stivell are now known internationally.

Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language.

The first Breton dictionary, the Catholicon, was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A monolingual dictionary, Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here was published in 1995. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.

In the early 21st century, the Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the Spilhennig to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an Internationalization and localization policy asking Google, Firefox and SPIP to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the Breton Wikipedia started, which counts just over 90,000 articles as of December 2025. In March 2007, the Ofis ar Brezhoneg signed a tripartite agreement with Regional Council of Brittany and Microsoft for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages after three years of talks between the Ofis and Facebook.

France has twice chosen to enter the Eurovision Song Contest with songs in Breton; once in 1996 in Oslo with "Diwanit bugale" by Dan Ar Braz and the fifty piece band Héritage des Celtes, and most recently in 2022 in Turin with "Fulenn" by Alvan Morvan Rosius and vocal trio Ahez. These are two of five times France has chosen songs in one of its minority languages for the contest, the others being in 1992 (bilingual French and Antillean Creole), 1993 (bilingual French and Corsican), and 2011 (Corsican).

Geographic distribution and dialects

File:Breton dialectes-en.svg

Dialects of Breton

Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside Gallo and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.

The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics, rather than to linguistic divisions. They are leoneg (léonard, of the county of Léon), tregerieg (trégorrois, of Trégor), kerneveg (cornouaillais, of Cornouaille), and gwenedeg (vannetais, of Vannes). Gwerranneg (guérandais, of Guérande) was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of Guérande and Batz-sur-Mer. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a dialect continuum and vary only slightly from one village to the next. Gwenedeg, however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects. Due to this difficulty in intelligibility, the Glottolog project split the Gwenedeg dialects into a separate language entry from the KLT Breton dialects in v5.2 under the name Vannetais.

File:Municipal electronic information sign in Breton in Carhaix.jpg

Electronic information sign in Breton, Carhaix

Distribution of Breton speakers by region

Region	Population	Number of speakers	Percentage of speakers
Basse Bretagne	1,300,000	185,000	14.2%
Centre Ouest Bretagne	112,000	20,000	20%
Trégor-Goelo	127,000	25,000	20%
Pays de Brest	370,000	40,000	11%
Pays de Cornouaille	320,000	35,000	11.5%
Pays de Lorient	212,000	15,000	7.3%
Pays de Vannes	195,000	11,000	5.5%
Pays de Guingamp	76,000	12,000	17%
Pays de Morlaix	126,000	15,000	12%
Pays de St Brieuc	191,000	5,000	3%
Pays de Pontivy	85,000	6,500	8%
Pays d'Auray	85,000	6,500	7.6%
Haute Bretagne	1,900,000	20,000	2%
Pays de Rennes	450,000	7,000	1.5%
Loire-Atlantique	1,300,000
Pays de Nantes	580,000	4,000	0.8%
TOTAL	4,560,000	216,000	4.6%

Official status

See also: Language policy of France

File:Ofis ar Brezhoneg vehicle.jpg

Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the use of Breton.

Nation

French is the sole official language of France. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.

Constitution

In July 2008, the legislature amended the French Constitution, adding article 75-1: les langues régionales appartiennent au patrimoine de la France (the regional languages belong to the heritage of France).

The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which obliges signatory states to recognize minority and regional languages, was signed by France in 1999 but has not been ratified. On 27 October 2015, the Senate rejected a draft constitutional law ratifying the charter.

File:Bilingual sin in Gwened.jpg

Bilingual sign in Gwened/Vannes

Region

Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed such as street name signs in Breton towns.

Under the Toubon Law, it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or only in French. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.

Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg, the Breton-language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton. It helped to create the Ya d'ar brezhoneg campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.

Education

File:Breton school sign in Rennes.jpg

Sign in French and partly in Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classes

In the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called Diwan) into the state education system. This action was blocked by the French Constitutional Council based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic. Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The Toubon Law implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education.

The Diwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature. Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.

Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by Div Yezh ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979. Dihun ("Awakening") was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools.

Statistics

In 2018, 18,337 pupils (about 2% of all students in Brittany) attended Diwan, Div Yezh and Dihun schools, and their number has increased yearly. This was short of the goal of Jean-Yves Le Drian, the president of the Regional Council, who aimed to have 20,000 students in bilingual schools by 2010 and "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life"; nevertheless, he described being encouraged by the growth of the movement.

In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed an evening or correspondence one Breton-language course. The transmission of Breton in 1999 was estimated to be 3 percent.

Growth of the percentage of pupils in bilingual education Year Number Percentage of all pupils in Brittany 2005 10,397 1.24% 2006 11,092 1.30% 2007 11,732 1.38% 2008 12,333 1.4% 2009 13,077 1.45% 2010 13,493 1.48% 2011 14,174 1.55% 2012 14,709 1.63% 2013 15,338 1.70% 2014 15,840 1.73% 2015 16,345 1.78% 2016 17,024 1.86% 2017 17,748 1.93% 2018 18,337 2.00% 2019 18,890 2.00% 2020 19,165 2.00% 2021 19,336 2.2% 2022 19,765 2.3% 2024 20,280 2.5%

Percentage of pupils in bilingual education per department Department Primary education (2022) Finistère 9.0% Morbihan 6.7% Côtes-d'Armor 4.4% Ille-et-Vilaine 1.8% Loire-Atlantique 0.5%

Municipalities

The 10 communes with the highest percentage of pupils in bilingual primary education, listed with their total population Commune Percentage (2023) Population (2007) Sant-Riwal (Finistère) 100% 177 Bulad-Pestivien (Côtes-d'Armor) 100% 412 Larruen (Côtes-d'Armor) 100% 457 Plounevez-Moedeg (Côtes-d'Armor) 68.2% 1,467 Langoned (Morbihan) 43.6% 1771 Kawan (Côtes-d'Armor) 42.9% 1528 Kommanna (Finistère) 42.1% 995 Mêl-Karaez (Côtes-d'Armor) 40.9% 1463 Pleuzal / Runan (Côtes-d'Armor) 39.4% 1466 Mêlrant (Morbihan) 38.8% 1519

The 10 communes of historic Brittany with the highest total population, listed with their percentages of pupils in bilingual primary education These figures include some cities in the department of Loire-Atlantique, which is now included in the Pays de la Loire region. See for example Brittany (administrative region). Commune Percentage (2008) Population (2007) Naoned (Loire-Atlantique) 1.4% 290,943 Roazhon (Ille-et-Vilaine) 2.87% 213,096 Brest (Finistère) 1.94% 146,519 Señ Neñseir (Loire-Atlantique) 0.41% 71,046 Kemper (Finistère) 3.17% 67,255 An Oriant (Morbihan) 2.71% 59,805 Gwened (Morbihan) 7.71% 55,383 Sant-Maloù (Ille-et-Vilaine) 0.55% 50,206 Sant-Brieg (Côtes-d'Armor) 3.98% 48,178 Sant-Ervlan (Loire-Atlantique) ? 44,364

Other forms of education

In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education), the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. The "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week and consist of songs and games.

Schools in secondary education (collèges and lycées) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option. Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton-language department, which offers courses in the language, along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.

Phonology

Vowels

Vowels in Breton may be short or long. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long. (Vowel length is not noted in usual orthographies, as it is implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long. An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position in different dialects.

All vowels can also be nasalized, which is noted by appending an ⟨n⟩ letter after the base vowel, by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for a and o because they are used in Portuguese orthography) or most commonly by non-ambiguously appending an ⟨ñ⟩ letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).

	Front		Central	Back
	unrounded	rounded		unrounded	rounded
Close	i Template:IPAslink	u Template:IPAslink			ou Template:IPAslink
Close-mid	e Template:IPAslink	eu Template:IPAslink			o Template:IPAslink
Open-mid	e Template:IPAslink	eu Template:IPAslink			o Template:IPAslink
Open			a Template:IPAslink	a Template:IPAslink

Diphthongs are /ai, ei, ou/.

Consonants

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal		Velar		Uvular	Glottal
						plain	lab.	plain	lab.
Nasal		m Template:IPAslink		n Template:IPAslink		gn Template:IPAslink
Plosive	voiced	b Template:IPAslink		d Template:IPAslink				g Template:IPAslink	gw, gou Template:IPAslink
	voiceless	p Template:IPAslink		t Template:IPAslink				k Template:IPAslink	kw, kou Template:IPAslink
Fricative	voiced	v Template:IPAslink	(z, d Template:IPAslink)	z, zh Template:IPAslink	j Template:IPAslink			cʼh Template:IPAslink
	voiceless	f Template:IPAslink		s Template:IPAslink	ch Template:IPAslink			cʼh Template:IPAslink			h, zh Template:IPAslink
Trill				r Template:IPAslink						(r Template:IPAslink)
Approximant	median				(r Template:IPAslink)	y Template:IPAslink	u Template:IPAslink		w Template:IPAslink
	lateral			l Template:IPAslink		lh Template:IPAslink

• The pronunciation of the letter ⟨r⟩ now varies: [ʁ] is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille), whereas [r] is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), but in rapid speech, mostly a tapped [ɾ] occurs. In the other regions of Trégor, [ɾ] or even [ɹ] may be found.
• The voiced dental fricative (Template:IPAslink) is a conservative realisation of the lenition (or the "spirant mutation" in cases that the phenomenon originates from the mutation of /t~θ/, respectively) of the consonants /d/ and /t/ which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais. Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and so it is mostly not orthographically fixed. The Peurunvan, for instance, uses ⟨z⟩ for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced [z] in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais. In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are used to represent the dental fricative depending on the scripture's historical period. There was a time that ⟨d⟩ was used for the sound, but it is today mostly replaced by the regular ⟨z⟩, a practice that can be traced back to at least the late 17th century. The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns of Pontivy and Baud and surrounding smaller villages like Cléguérec, Noyal-Pontivy, Pluméliau, St. Allouestre, St. Barthélemy, Pluvigner and parts of Belle-Île. The only known place to have the mutation occur outside the Vannes country is the Île de Sein, an island located off Finistère's coast. Some scholars also used [ẓ] as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an "infra-dental" consonant, than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol /ð/ usually describes. Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect of Sauzon in Belle-Île) or because that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions did not need a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation, as it was a clearly-distinguishable phoneme.

Orthography

The first extant Breton texts, contained in the Leyden manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century, 50 years prior to the Strasbourg Oaths, which are considered to be the earliest example of French. Like many medieval orthographies, Old and Middle Breton had an orthography that was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at the author's discretion. In 1499, however, the Catholicon, was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in the Catholicon was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate digraph Template:Vr, which was a remnant of the sound change /kʷ/ > /k/ in Latin, and the Brittonic Template:Vr or Template:Vr to represent /k/ before front vowels.

As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the Vannes country, began to devise their own orthographies. Many of those orthographies were more closely related to the French model albeit with some modifications. Examples of modifications include the replacement of Old Breton -Template:Vr with -Template:Vr to denote word-final /x~h/ (an evolution of Old Breton /θ/ in the Vannes dialect) and the use of -Template:Vr to denote the initial mutation of /k/ (today, this mutation is written Template:Vr).

In the 1830s, Jean-François Le Gonidec created a modern phonetic system for the language.

During the early 20th century, a group of writers known as Emglev ar Skrivanerien elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor (known as from Kernev, Leon and Treger in Breton). This KLT orthography was established in 1911. At the same time, writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system, which was also based on that of Le Gonidec.

Following proposals that had been made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. This Peurunvan ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph Template:Vr, which represents a /h/ in Vannetais and corresponds to a /z/ in the KLT dialects.

In 1955, François Falcʼhun and the group Emgleo Breiz proposed a new orthography, which was designed to use a set of graphemes closer to the conventions of French. This Orthographe universitaire ("University Orthography", known in Breton as Skolveurieg) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education". It was opposed in the region and was only by the magazine Brud Nevez and the publishing house Emgleo Breiz, which disappeared in 2015.

In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised: the etrerannyezhel or interdialectale. This system is based on the derivation of the words.

Today, most writers continue to use the Peurunvan orthography, and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.

Alphabet

Breton is written in the Latin script. Peurunvan, the most commonly used orthography, consists of the following letters:

a, b, ch, cʼh, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, w, y, z

The circumflex, grave accent, trema and tilde appear on some letters. The diacritics are used in the following way:

â, ê, î, ô, û, ù, ü, ñ

Differences between Skolveurieg and Peurunvan

Both orthographies use the above alphabet although Template:Vr is used only in Skolveurieg.

Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, final obstruents, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in sandhi before voiced sounds, are represented by a grapheme that indicates a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: braz "big", brasocʼh "bigger".

In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation. e.g., brezhoneg Template:Gloss vs. brezhonek Template:Gloss.

Comparison of different orthographies

Etrerannyezhel (1975)	Peurunvan (1941)	Skolveurieg (1956)	English gloss
glaw	glav	glao	rain
piw	piv	piou	who
levr	levr	leor	book
ewid	evit	evid	for
gant	gant	gand	with
anezhi	anezhi	anezi	of her
ouzhpenn	ouzhpenn	ouspenn	add
brawañ	bravañ	brava	most beautiful
pelecʼh	pelecʼh	peleh	where

Pronunciation of the Breton alphabet

C (as a single letter), Q and X appear mainly in loanwords. ⟨ks⟩ or ⟨gz⟩ may be used to represent /ks/ or /ɡz/. The digraph ⟨zh⟩ represents a variable sound that may exhibit as /s/, /z/, or /h/, and descends from a now-extinct sound /θ/, which is still extant in Welsh as ⟨th⟩.

Letter	Kerneveg	Leoneg	Tregiereg	Gwenedeg
A a	[ä, a, ɑː]
â	[ɑː]
ae	[ae̯~aj]	[ɛa]	[ɛː]
an	[ɑ̃n]
añ	[ɑ̃]
ao	[ao̯~aw]		[ɔː]	[ao̯~aw]
aou	[ɔʊ̯~ɔw]
B b	[b], [p]
Ch ch	[ʃ], [ʒ]
Cʼh cʼh	[h], [x]	[h], [ɣ~ɦ], [x]	[h], [x]	[h, x]
cʼhw	[xw~f]	[xw]		[hw~(hɥ)]
D d	[d], [t]
E e	[ɛ, ɛ̞, e, eː]		[ɛ, ɛ̞, e, eː], [ə]
ê	[ɛː]
ei	[ɛi̯~ɛj]
eeu	[eø̯~ew]
eo	[eː]	[eɔ]	[eː]	[eː, ə]
eu	[œ, œ̞, ø, øː]
eü	[ɛɥ, e(v)y]
eue	[ø̯e~ɥe]
F f	[f], [v]
'f	[v~ɸ]
G g	[ɡ, k]			[ɡ~(ɟ), k~(c)]
gn	[ɲ]
gw	[ɡw]			[ɡw~(ɟɥ)]
H h	[h]
I i	[i, iː, j]
ilh	[(i)ʎ]
J j	[ʒ], [ʃ]
K k	[k]			[k~(c)]
L l	[l], [ɬ]
M m	[m]
N n	[n], [ŋ]
ñ	[◌̃]
ñv	[◌̃v]
O o	[ɔ, ɔ̞, o, oː]
oa	[ɔ̯a~wa, ɔ̯ɑː~wɑː]	[ɔ̯a~wa, ɔ̯ɑː~wɑː, ɔa, oːa]	[ɔ̯a~wa, ɔ̯ɑː~wɑː]	[ɔ̯ɛ~wɛ, ɔ̯eː~weː]
ôa	[oːa]
oe	[ɔ̯ɛ(ː)~wɛ(ː)]
on	[ɔ̃n]
oñ	[ɔ̃]
ou	[u, uː, w]			[u, uː, w~(ɥ)]
où	[u]		[o]	[ø, ow, aw, aɥ, ɔɥ]
oü	[oy̆, oːy]
P p	[p]
R r	[ʀ~ʁ~r~ɾ~ɹ], [χ~r̥~ɾ̥~ɹ̥]
S s	[s, z]
sh	[s]			[h]
sk	[sk]			[sk~(sc~ʃc)]
st	[st]			[ʃt]
T t	[t]
U u	[y, yː, ɥ]
ui	[ɥi, ɥiː]
ul, un, ur	[ɔl, ɔn, ɔʀ]	[œl, œn, œr]	[œl, œn, œɾ]	[yl, yn, yʁ]
V v	[v]
vh	[f]
W w	[w]			[w~(ɥ)]
Y y	[j]
Z z	[z], Ø, [s]	[z, ʒ/ʃ]	[z], Ø	[z], Ø, [ð]
zh	[z]			[h]

Notes:

1. ^ Vocative particle: â Vreizh "O Brittany".
2. ^ Word-initially.
3. ^ Word-finally.
4. ^ Unwritten lenition of Template:Vr and spirantization of Template:Vr > Template:Vr [v].
5. ^ Unstressed Template:Vr represent [ɛ, œ, ɔ] in Leoneg but [e, ø, o] in the other dialects. The realisations [ɛ̞, œ̞, ɔ̞] appear mainly before Template:Vr (also less often before Template:Vr), semivowels [j, w], consonant clusters beginning with Template:Vr or Template:Vr. Stressed long Template:Vr represent [eː, øː, oː].
6. ^ In Gwenedeg velars are palatalized before Template:Vr and Template:Vr, i.e. Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr, Template:Vr represent [c~tʃ, ɟ~dʒ, cɥ, hɥ, ɟɥ, ɥ, sc~ʃc]. In the case of word-final Template:Vr and Template:Vr palatalization to [c] also occurs after Template:Vr.
7. ^ Before a vowel other than Template:Vr the digraph Template:Vr is written instead of Template:Vr, e.g. bleniañ "to drive", radical blegn, 1PS preterite blegnis, 3PS preterite blenias.
8. ^ Silent in words such as ha(g), he(cʼh), ho(cʼh), holl, hon, hor and hol. Always silent in Gwenedeg and Leoneg.
9. ^ Template:Vr is realized as [j] when it precedes or follows a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such as lien, liorzh, rakdiazezañ it represents [iː] (in orthography Template:Vr may be used: lïen, lïorzh, rakdïazezañ).
10. ^ Template:Vr represents [ʎ] when it follows a vowel, after a consonant it represents [iʎ]. But before a vowel other than Template:Vr, Template:Vr is written instead of Template:Vr, e.g. heuliañ "to follow", radical heuilh, 1PS preterite heuilhis, 3PS preterite heulias. In some regions [j] may be heard instead of [ʎ].
11. ^ Word-finally after a cluster of unvoiced consonants.
12. ^ In front of Template:Vr.
13. ^ The digraph Template:Vr is realized like Template:Vr when preceded or followed by a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such as Doue, douar, gouarn it represents [uː].
14. ^ The digraph Template:Vr represents plural endings. Its pronunciation varies by dialect: [u, o, ø, ow, aw, aɥ, ɔɥ] rating geographically from Northwest Leon to Southeast Gwened.
15. ^ Template:Vr usually represents [v], but word-finally (except in word-final Template:Vr) it represents [w] in KLT, [ɥ] in Gwenedeg and [f] in Goëlo. The pronunciation [v] is retained word-finally in verbs. In words bliv, Gwiskriv, gwiv, liv, piv, riv it represents [u] in KLT, [ɥ] in Gwenedeg and [f] in Goëlo. Word-finally following Template:Vr it represents [o].
16. ^ But silent in words such as gouez, bloaz, goaz, ruziañ, kleiz, rakdïazezañ, bezañ, Roazhon, dezhañ, kouezhañ, 'z, az, ez, da'z, gwirionez, enep(g)wirionez, moneiz, falsvoneiz, karantez, kengarantez, nevez, nevezcʼhanet, nadozioù, abardaez, gwez, bemdez, kriz, bleiz, morvleiz, dezhi. Template:Vr is generally silent in Kerneweg, Tregerieg and Gwenedeg, but in Leoneg Template:Vr is always pronounced.
17. ^ Used to distinguish words such as stêr "river", hêr "heir", kêr "town" (also written kaer) from ster "sense", her "bold", ker "dear".
18. ^ Used to distinguish trôad "circuit/tour" from troad "foot".
19. ^ In northern dialects (mainly in Leoneg), there is a tendency to voice Template:Vr between vowels. [ɣ] also appears as the lenition of Template:Vr and mixed mutation of Template:Vr.
20. ^ The lenition of Template:Vr and the spirantization of Template:Vr are both represented by Template:Vr is mainly pronounced [z] although in certain regions [s] (especially for the spirantization of Template:Vr in Cornouaille) and [ð] (in some Haut-Vannetais varieties) also occur.
21. ^ The pronunciation of Template:Vr varies by dialect, nowadays uvular [ʀ] (or [ʁ]) is standard; [r] occurs in Leoneg, [ɾ] or [ɹ] in Tregerieg, and [ʀ], [ʁ], [r], and [ɾ] in Gwenedeg.
22. ^ In Gwenedeg an unstressed Template:Vr often represents [ə].
23. ^ Lenited varieties of Template:Vr may appear word-initially in case of soft mutation.
24. ^ In Leoneg [u(ː)] in front of a nasal.
25. ^ In Leoneg Template:Vr represents [v] before Template:Vr.
26. ^ In Leoneg Template:Vr represents [ʃ] or [ʒ] before Template:Vr.
27. ^ In Leoneg Template:Vr represents [ɡr].
28. ^ Before a vowel.
29. ^ Forms of the indefinite article.
30. ^ A conservative realisation of the initial mutation of Template:Vr and Template:Vr, used in certain parts of the Vannes country.

Grammar

Main article: Breton grammar

Nouns

Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton has a fairly typical gender system for Western Europe, Breton has number markers that demonstrate rarer behaviors.

Gender

Breton has two genders: masculine (gourel) and feminine (gwregel). It has largely lost its historic neuter (nepreizh), as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages and in the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (-ach/-aj, -(a)dur, -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va) are masculine, while others (-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i, -eg, -ell, and the singulative -enn) are feminine. The suffix -eg can be masculine or feminine.

There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for eur "hour", noz "night" and sizhun "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.

However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.

Number

Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural. However, the system is full of complexities in how the distinction is realized.

Although modern Breton has lost the dual number as a productive grammatical category, remnants of its use are preserved in certain nouns referring to paired body parts such as for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs and wings. Those forms typically feature a prefix (daou-, di- or div-), which is etymologically derived from the numeral two. The dual number is no longer a productive feature of Breton grammar and survives only in a lexicalized form. Certain words such as daoulagad ('eyes') and divskouarn ('ears') are historically dual in origin. These forms can nevertheless undergo pluralization once more to yield daoulagadoù ('pairs of eyes') and diskouarnoù ('pairs of ears').

Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a singulative suffix, which forms singulars out of collective nouns for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective logod "mice" is logodenn "mouse". "Breton exhibits a more complex system than Welsh in this respect. Collective nouns can undergo pluralization, yielding forms with meanings distinct from the base collective. For example, pesk ('fish', singular) forms the collective plural pesked ('fish'), which may then be singulativized as peskedenn to denote an individual fish from a group. This singulative of the plural can in turn be pluralized once more, producing peskedennoù ('fishes')."

"In addition, the Breton plural system is complicated by the existence of two distinct pluralizing functions. Alongside the 'default' plural, there is a second formation used to convey a sense of variety or diversity. As a result, a single noun may yield two semantically different plurals; for example, park ('park') forms parkoù ('parks') and parkeier ('various different parks')." Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns. Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: dour "water" pluralized forms dourioù which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while doureier now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: keloù means "news" and *kel is not used, while keleier has become the regular plural, 'different news items'.

Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – bugel "child" is pluralized once into bugale "children" and then pluralized a second time to make bugaleoù "groups of children".

The diminutive suffix -ig also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: bugelig means "little child", but the doubly pluralized bugaleigoù means "little children"; bag boat has a singular diminutive bagig and a simple plural bagoù, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized bagoùigoù.

As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be difficult to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.

The most common plural marker is -où, with its variant -ioù; most nouns that use that marker are inanimates, but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.

Most animate nouns, including trees, have a plural in -ed. However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations, as well as the word Saoz ("Englishman", plural Saozon), take the suffix -ien, with a range of variants including -on, -ion, -an and -ian.

The rare pluralizing suffixes -er/-ier and -i are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: -i triggers a vowel harmony effect in which some or all preceding vowels are changed to i (kenderv "cousin" → kindirvi "cousins"; bran "crow" → brini "crows"; klujur "partridge" → klujiri "partridges"); the changes associated with -er/-ier are less predictable.

Various nouns instead form their plural merely with ablaut: a or o in the stem is changed to e: askell "wing" → eskell "wings"; dant "tooth" → dent "teeth"; kordenn "rope" → kerdenn "ropes".

Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include placʼh "girl" → mercʼhed, porcʼhell "pig" → mocʼh, buocʼh "cow" → saout, and ki "dog" → chas.

In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.

Verbal aspect

Like in other Celtic languages, as well as in English, a variety of verbal constructions can be used to express grammatical aspect such as to show a distinction between progressive and habitual actions:

Breton	Cornish	Irish	English
Me zo o komz gant ma amezeg	Yth eso'vy ow kewsel orth ow hentrevek	Táim ag labhairt le mo chomharsa	I am talking to my neighbour
Me a gomz gant ma amezeg (bep mintin)	My a gews orth ow hentrevek (pub myttin)	Labhraím le mo chomharsa (gach maidin)	I talk to my neighbour (every morning)

Inflected prepositions

Like in other modern Celtic languages, Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of inflected preposition. Here are some examples in Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx, along with English translationsL

Breton	Cornish	Welsh	Irish	Scottish Gaelic	Manx	English
Template:Interlinear	yma lyver genev	mae llyfr gennyf	tá leabhar agam	tha leabhar agam	ta lioar aym	I have a book
Template:Interlinear	yma diwes genes	mae diod gennyt	tá deoch agat	tha deoch agad	ta jough ayd	you have a drink
Template:Interlinear	yma jynn-amontya ganso	mae cyfrifiadur ganddo	tá ríomhaire aige	tha coimpiutair aige	ta co-earrooder echey	he has a computer
Template:Interlinear	yma flogh gensi	mae plentyn ganddi	tá leanbh aici	tha leanabh aice	ta lhiannoo eck	she has a child
Template:Interlinear	yma karr genen	mae car gennym	tá gluaisteán / carr againn	tha càr againn	ta gleashtan / carr ain	we have a car
Template:Interlinear	yma chi genowgh	mae tŷ gennych	tá teach agaibh	tha taigh agaibh	ta thie eu	you have a house
Template:Interlinear	yma mona gansa	mae arian ganddynt	tá airgead acu	tha airgead aca	ta argid oc	they have money

In the examples above, the Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning at to show possession, and the Brittonic languages use the one meaning with. The Goidelic languages, however, use the preposition with to express "belong to" (Irish is liom an leabhar, Scottish is leam an leabhar, Manx s'lhiams yn lioar, The book belongs to me).

The Welsh examples are in literary Welsh. The order and the preposition may differ slightly in Colloquial Welsh (Formal mae car gennym, North Wales mae gynnon ni gar, South Wales mae car gyda ni).

Initial consonant mutations

Main article: Breton mutations

Breton has four initial consonant mutations. Though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of Welsh (but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor"), it also has a "hard" mutation, which has voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.

Initial consonant mutations in Breton

Unmutated consonant	Mutations
	Hard	Mixed	Soft	Aspirant
m [m]		v [v]	v [v]
b [b]	p [p̎]	v [v]	v [v]
p [p]			b [b̥]	f [v̥]
g [ɡ]	k [k͈]	cʼh [ɣ]	cʼh [ɣ]
k [k]			g [ɡ̊]	cʼh [x]
d [d]	t [t͈]	t [t͈]	z [z]
t [t]			d [d̥]	z [h]
gw [ɡʷ]	kw [kʷ]	w [w]	w [w]

Word order

Normal word order, like the other Insular Celtic languages, is at its core VSO (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs in main clauses are additionally subject to V2 word order in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence. In fact, starting a sentence with a finite verb is generally ungrammatical in Breton.

Noun phrases, adverbial phrases, verbal nouns and the negative particle ne may stand in sentence-initial position to satisfy the V2 requirement. That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):

• the first places the verbal infinitive in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the auxiliary ober Template:Gloss.
• the second places the auxiliary verb bezañ Template:Gloss in initial position (as in (2)), followed by the subject and the construction o(cʼh) + infinitive. At the end comes the object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.
• the third places the construction o(cʼh) + infinitive in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the auxiliary verb bezañ, the subject and the object.
• the fourth option places the object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb and then by the subject.
• the fifth, and originally least common, places the subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the object, just like in English (SVO).

Vocabulary

Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loanwords from French.

Words and phrases

File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg

Bilingual signage in Quimper/Kemper. Note the use of the word ti in the Breton for 'police station' and 'tourist office', plus da bep lecʼh for all directions.

Visitors to Brittany may encounter words and phrases (especially on signs and posters) such as the following:

Breton	English
deuet mat	welcome
deuet mat ocʼh	you're welcome
Breizh	Brittany
brezhoneg	Breton (language)
ti, ty	house
ti-kêr	town hall
kreiz-kêr	town centre
da bep lecʼh	all directions
skol	school
skol-veur	university
bagad	pipe band (nearly)
fest-noz	lit. "night festival", a fest deiz or "day festival" also exists
kenavo	goodbye
krampouezh	pancakes (a pancake = ur grampouezhenn, see singulative)
sistr	cider
chouchenn	Breton mead
yecʼhed mat	Cheers!
war vor atav	always at sea
kouign amann	rich butter and sugar cake

Borrowing from Breton by other languages

The English words dolmen and menhir have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, menhir is peulvan or maen hir ("long stone"), maen sav ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton. Dolmen is a misconstructed word (it should be taol-vaen). Some studies state that these words were borrowed from Cornish. Maen hir can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a menhir or maen hir is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish men hyr ("long stone"), as does Tremenheere "settlement by the long stone".

The French word baragouiner ("to jabber in a foreign language or an unintelligible manner") is derived from Breton bara ("bread") and gwin ("wine"). The French word goéland ("large seagull") is derived from Breton gwelan, which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welsh gwylan, Cornish goelann).

Sample texts

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Breton: Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.

English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Lord's Prayer

Hon Tad,
cʼhwi hag a zo en Neñv,
ra vo santelaet hocʼh anv.
Ra zeuio ho Rouantelezh.
Ra vo graet ho youl war an douar evel en neñv.
Roit dimp hiziv bara hor bevañs.
Distaolit dimp hon dleoù
evel m'hor bo ivez distaolet d'hon dleourion.
Ha n'hon lezit ket da vont gant an temptadur,
met hon dieubit eus an Droug.

Language comparison

English	French	Breton	Cornish	Welsh	Scottish Gaelic	Irish
earth	terre	douar	dor	daear	talamh	talamh
sky	ciel	oabl (older oabr)	ebron	wybren	speur	spéir
heaven	paradis	neñv	nev	nef	nèamh	neamh
food	nourriture	boued	boos (older boes)	bwyd	biadh	bia
house	maison	ti	chi	tŷ	taigh	teach (south tigh)
church	église	iliz	eglos	eglwys	eaglais	eaglais
person, man	personne, homme	den, gour	den, gour	dyn, gŵr	duine, fear	duine, fear
dog	chien, chienne	ki	ki	ci	cù	gadhar, madra (cú hound)
sell	vendre	gwerzhañ	gwertha	gwerthu	reic	díol, reic trade, íoc pay
eat	manger	debriñ	dybri	bwyta	ith (biadhaich feed)	ith (cothaigh feed)
drink	boire	evañ	eva	yfed	òl (archaic ibh)	ól (archaic ibh)
see	voir	gwelet	gweles	gweld	faic (fut. chì)	feic (south chí)
black	noir, noire	du	du	du	dubh	dubh
white	blanc, blanche	gwenn	gwynn	gwyn	bàn, geal (fionn 'fair')	fionn, bán, geal
green	vert, verte	gwer, glas	gwer, gwyrdh, glas	gwyrdd, glas	uaine, glas	uaine, glas
red	rouge	ruz	rudh	coch (also: rhudd)	dearg (hair, etc. ruadh)	dearg (hair, etc. rua)
yellow	jaune	melen	melyn	melyn	buidhe	buí
book	livre	levr	lyver	llyfr	leabhar	leabhar
day	jour, journée	deiz	dydh	dydd	latha	lá (also dé in names of weekdays)
year	an, année	bloaz	bloodh	blwyddyn	bliadhna	blian/bliain
beer	bière	korev (bier)	korev	cwrw	leann (cuirm)	leann, beoir, coirm ale
go	aller	mont	mones (mos)	mynd	rach (verbal noun dol)	téigh (verbal noun, dul)
come	venir	dont	dones	dod	thig (verbal noun, tighinn)	tar (participle, ag teacht)
cat	chat, chatte	kazh	kath	cath	cat	cat
live	vivre	bevañ	bewa	byw	beò	beo
dead	mort, morte	marv	marow	marw	marbh	marbh
name	nom	anv	hanow	enw	ainm	ainm
water	eau	dour	dowr	dŵr	uisge (dobhair)	uisce, dobhar
true	vrai, vraie	gwir	gwir	gwir	fìor	fíor
woman	femme	gwreg	gwreg	gwraig	bean	bean
sheep	mouton	dañvad	davas	dafad	caora 'sheep' (damh 'stag', 'ox';)	damh 'stag', 'ox'; caora 'sheep'
better	mieux	gwell, gwellocʼh	gwell	gwell	feàrr	níos fearr
say	dire	lavarout	leverel	siarad (also: llefaru)	can (labhair speak)	deir (labhair speak)
night	nuit	noz	nos	nôs	a-nochd 'tonight'; oidhche 'night'	anocht 'tonight'; oíche 'night'
root	racine	gwrizienn	gwreydhen	gwreiddyn	freumh	fréamh, (south préamh)
iron	fer	houarn	horn	haearn	iarann	iarann
summer	été	hañv	hav	haf	samhradh	samhradh
winter	hiver	goañv	gwav	gaeaf	geamhradh	geimhreadh

.bzh

.bzh is an approved Internet generic top-level domains intended for Brittany and the Breton culture and languages. In 2023, the Breton internet extension .bzh had more than 12,000 registrations. Alongside the promotion of the .bzh internet extension, the www.bzh association promotes other services to develop Brittany's image on the web: campaign for a Breton flag emoji (File:Flag of Brittany (Gwenn ha du).svg), and email service.

See also

• Armoricani
• Gaelic revival, Irish-language revival
• Julian Maunoir, 17th-century Breton-language orthographer
• List of Celtic-language media
• Stourm ar Brezhoneg, an association promoting the language

References

Further reading

Overviews

• Press, Ian (2010). "Breton". In Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James (eds.). The Celtic languages, 2nd Edition. Abingdon; New York: Routledge. pp. 427–487.
• Stephens, Janig (1993). "Breton". In Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James (eds.). The Celtic languages. Routledge language family descriptions. Abingdon; New York: Routledge. pp. 349–409. ISBN 978-0415280808.
• Ternes, Elmar (1992). "The Breton language". In MacAulay, Donald (ed.). The Celtic languages. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge; New York; Oakleigh: Cambridge University Press. pp. 371–452. ISBN 978-0521231275.

Historical development

• Hemon, Roparz. A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1975.
• Jackson, Kenneth H. (1967). A historical phonology of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 978-0-901282-53-8.
• Schrijver, Peter (2011). "Middle and early modern Breton". In Ternes, Elmar (ed.). Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From medieval British to modern Breton. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 359–430. ISBN 9783934106802.
• Schrijver, Peter (2011). "Old British". In Ternes, Elmar (ed.). Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From medieval British to modern Breton. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 1–84. ISBN 9783934106802.
• Ternes, Elmar (2011). "Neubretonisch". In Ternes, Elmar (ed.). Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From medieval British to modern Breton. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 431–530. ISBN 9783934106802.

Grammars and handbooks

• Desbordes, Yann (1990). Petite grammaire du breton moderne. Lesneven: Mouladurioù Hor Yezh. ISBN 978-2868630520.
• Falcʼhun, François (1951). Le système consonantique du breton avec une étude comparative de phonétique expérimentale. Rennes: Plihon.
• Favereau, Francis. Grammaire du breton contemporain. Morlaix: Skol Vreizh, 1997.
• Hemon, Roparz. Breton Grammar, 3rd edn. Trans. & rev'd by Michael Everson. Westport: Evertype, 2011.
• Kervella, Frañsez (1947). Yezhadur bras ar brezhoneg. Brest: Al Liamm.
• McKenna, Malachy. A handbook of modern spoken Breton. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1988 (repr. 2015).
• Press, Ian (1986). A grammar of modern Breton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. (repr. 2011).
• Press, Ian & Hervé Le Bihan. Colloquial Breton: the complete course for beginners. London: Routledge, 2004 (repr. 2007, 2015).

External links

• Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg official website.
• France 3 breizh, the public Breton TV channel.
• Endangered, Breizh net: an essay about the situation of the Breton language.
• 100 Breton Internet-related words, Breizh, archived from the original on 12 December 2007, retrieved 15 October 2005
• Amsez Wask Breizh, Agence bretagne presse: news in Breton.
• "Blog Breizh", blog.breizh.bz, archived from the original (blog) on 12 June 2011, retrieved 7 July 2006: Brittany information, articles about Breton.
• Richard, Meredith, "Labara 6: a taste of Breton verse", Ogmios Project, Summerlands.
• Breton, Omniglot, archived from the original on 15 February 2008, retrieved 20 January 2008.

Dictionaries

• English online dictionary and grammar for Breton
• A multilingual dictionary containing many Breton words alongside those of other languages

Learning

• Breton site including online lessons
• Jouitteau, M. Grammaire du breton, (extensive Breton grammar in French, with glossed examples and typological comparisons), IKER, CNRS, 2009 > 2017].