Biosphere: Difference between revisions

Line 1:

{{About|the sum of all ecosystems|the sum of all planetary [[Outline of Earth sciences#Earth's spheres|spheres]]|Ecosphere (planetary)|other uses}}

[[File:Seawifs global biosphere.jpg|thumb~~|360px~~|A [[false color]] composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 2001 to August 2017. Provided by the [[SeaWiFS]] Project, [[NASA]]/[[Goddard Space Flight Center]] and [[GeoEye|ORBIMAGE]].{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}]]

[[File:Seawifs global biosphere.jpg|thumb|A [[false color]] composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 2001 to August 2017. Provided by the [[SeaWiFS]] Project, [[NASA]]/[[Goddard Space Flight Center]] and [[GeoEye|ORBIMAGE]].{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}]]

The '''biosphere''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|βίος}}'' ({{grc-transl|βίος}})|life||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|σφαῖρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαῖρα}})|sphere}}), also called the '''ecosphere''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|οἶκος}}'' ({{grc-transl|οἶκος}})|settlement, house||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|σφαῖρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαῖρα}})|sphere}}), is the worldwide sum of all [[ecosystem]]s. It can also be termed the zone of [[life]] on the [[Earth]]. The biosphere (which is technically a [[spherical shell]]) is virtually a [[Closed ecological system|closed system with regard to matter]],<ref name="ColumbiaEncyc">[https://web.archive.org/web/20111027194858/http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/biosphere.jsp "Biosphere"] in ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. (2004) Columbia University Press.</ref> with minimal inputs and outputs. Regarding [[energy]], it is an open system, with [[photosynthesis]] capturing [[solar energy]] at a rate of around 100 [[Watt|terawatts]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nealson|first1=Kenneth H.|last2=Zeki|first2=S.|last3=Conrad|first3=Pamela G.|title=Life: past, present and future|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences|volume=354|issue=1392|year=1999|pages=1923–1939|pmc=1692713|pmid=10670014|doi=10.1098/rstb.1999.0532}}</ref> By the most general [[Geophysiology|biophysiological]] definition, the biosphere is the global [[ecology|ecological]] system integrating all [[living beings]] and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the [[lithosphere]], [[cryosphere]], [[hydrosphere]], and [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. The biosphere is postulated to have [[evolved]], beginning with a process of [[origin of life|biopoiesis]] (life created naturally from {{Nowrap|non-living}} matter, such as simple organic compounds) or [[biogenesis]] (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago.<ref name="Campbell 2006">{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Neil A.|author2=Brad Williamson|author3=Robin J. Heyden|title=Biology: Exploring Life|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2006|location=Boston, Massachusetts|url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html|isbn=978-0-13-250882-7|access-date=2008-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html|archive-date=2014-11-02|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20131003">{{cite news|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Zimmer|title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html|date=3 October 2013|work=The New York Times|access-date=3 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003185748/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html|archive-date=3 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Line 21:

== Earth's biosphere ==

=== Overview ===

Currently, the total number of [[Cell (biology)|living cells]] on the Earth is estimated to be 1030; the total number since the beginning of Earth, as 1040, and the total number for the entire time of a [[Planetary habitability|habitable planet Earth]] as 1041.<ref name="NYT-20231201">{{cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|author-link=Dennis Overbye|title=Exactly How Much Life Is on Earth? – According to a new study, living cells outnumber stars in the universe, highlighting the deep, underrated link between geophysics and biology.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|date=1 December 2023|work=The New York Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201065236/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CB-20231106">{{cite journal|author=Crockford, Peter W.|display-authors=et al.|title=The geologic history of primary productivity|date=6 November 2023|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=33|issue=21|pages=P7741–4750.E5|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.040|pmid=37827153|bibcode=2023CBio...33E4741C|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is much larger than the total number of estimated stars (and Earth-like planets) in the observable universe as 1024, a number which is more than all the grains of beach sand on planet Earth;<ref name="ESA-2020">{{cite web|author=Staff|title=How many stars are there in the Universe?|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|date=2020|work=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200117184622/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|archive-date=17 January 2020|access-date=January 17, 2020}}</ref><ref name="SWIN-20020201">{{cite web|last=Mackie|first=Glen|title=To see the Universe in a Grain of Taranaki Sand|url=https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|date=1 February 2002|work=[[Swinburne University of Technology]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20221228121404/https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|archive-date=28 December 2022|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CNET-20150319">{{cite news|last=Mack|first=Eric|title=There may be more Earth-like planets than grains of sand on all our beaches – New research contends that the Milky Way alone is flush with billions of potentially habitable planets -- and that's just one sliver of the universe.|url=https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|date=19 March 2015|work=[[CNET]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201144523/https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="MNRAS-20150313">{{cite journal|last1=T. Bovaird|first1=T.|last2=Lineweaver|first2=C.H.|last3=Jacobsen|first3=S.K.|title=Using the inclinations of Kepler systems to prioritize new Titius–Bode-based exoplanet predictions|url=https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|date=13 March 2015|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=448|issue=4|pages=3608–3627|doi=10.1093/mnras/stv221|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201151205/https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023|doi-access=free|arxiv=1412.6230}}</ref> but less than the total number of atoms estimated in the observable universe as 1082;<ref name="LS-20210711">{{cite news|last=Baker|first=Harry|title=How many atoms are in the observable universe?|url=https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|date=11 July 2021|work=[[Live Science]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201143640/https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref> and the estimated total number of stars in an [[Inflation (cosmology)|inflationary universe]] (observed and unobserved), as 10100.<ref name="SR-20200203">{{cite journal|last=Totani|first=Tomonori|title=Emergence of life in an inflationary universe|date=3 February 2020|journal=[[Scientific Reports]]|volume=10|number=1671|~~page~~=1671|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-58060-0|doi-access=free|pmid=32015390|pmc=6997386|arxiv=1911.08092|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.1671T}}</ref>

Currently, the total number of [[Cell (biology)|living cells]] on the Earth is estimated to be 1030; the total number since the beginning of Earth, as 1040, and the total number for the entire time of a [[Planetary habitability|habitable planet Earth]] as 1041.<ref name="NYT-20231201">{{cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|author-link=Dennis Overbye|title=Exactly How Much Life Is on Earth? – According to a new study, living cells outnumber stars in the universe, highlighting the deep, underrated link between geophysics and biology.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|date=1 December 2023|work=The New York Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201065236/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CB-20231106">{{cite journal|author=Crockford, Peter W.|display-authors=et al.|title=The geologic history of primary productivity|date=6 November 2023|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=33|issue=21|pages=P7741–4750.E5|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.040|pmid=37827153|bibcode=2023CBio...33E4741C|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is much larger than the total number of estimated stars (and Earth-like planets) in the observable universe as 1024, a number which is more than all the grains of beach sand on planet Earth;<ref name="ESA-2020">{{cite web|author=Staff|title=How many stars are there in the Universe?|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|date=2020|work=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200117184622/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|archive-date=17 January 2020|access-date=January 17, 2020}}</ref><ref name="SWIN-20020201">{{cite web|last=Mackie|first=Glen|title=To see the Universe in a Grain of Taranaki Sand|url=https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|date=1 February 2002|work=[[Swinburne University of Technology]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20221228121404/https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|archive-date=28 December 2022|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CNET-20150319">{{cite news|last=Mack|first=Eric|title=There may be more Earth-like planets than grains of sand on all our beaches – New research contends that the Milky Way alone is flush with billions of potentially habitable planets -- and that's just one sliver of the universe.|url=https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|date=19 March 2015|work=[[CNET]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201144523/https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="MNRAS-20150313">{{cite journal|last1=T. Bovaird|first1=T.|last2=Lineweaver|first2=C.H.|last3=Jacobsen|first3=S.K.|title=Using the inclinations of Kepler systems to prioritize new Titius–Bode-based exoplanet predictions|url=https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|date=13 March 2015|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=448|issue=4|pages=3608–3627|doi=10.1093/mnras/stv221|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201151205/https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023|doi-access=free|arxiv=1412.6230}}</ref> but less than the total number of atoms estimated in the observable universe as 1082;<ref name="LS-20210711">{{cite news|last=Baker|first=Harry|title=How many atoms are in the observable universe?|url=https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|date=11 July 2021|work=[[Live Science]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201143640/https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref> and the estimated total number of stars in an [[Inflation (cosmology)|inflationary universe]] (observed and unobserved), as 10100.<ref name="SR-20200203">{{cite journal|last=Totani|first=Tomonori|title=Emergence of life in an inflationary universe|date=3 February 2020|journal=[[Scientific Reports]]|volume=10|number=1671|article-number=1671|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-58060-0|doi-access=free|pmid=32015390|pmc=6997386|arxiv=1911.08092|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.1671T}}</ref>

=== Age ===

[[File:Stromatolithe Paléoarchéen - MNHT.PAL.2009.10.1.jpg|thumb~~|200px|right~~|Stromatolite fossil estimated at 3.2–3.6 billion years old]]

[[File:Stromatolithe Paléoarchéen - MNHT.PAL.2009.10.1.jpg|thumb|Stromatolite fossil estimated at 3.2–3.6 billion years old]]

The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest evidence]] for life on Earth includes [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7 billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks from [[Western Greenland]]<ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal|title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|doi=10.1038/ngeo2025|date=8 December 2013|volume=7|issue=1|pages=25–28|bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O|last1=Ohtomo|first1=Yoko|last2=Kakegawa|first2=Takeshi|last3=Ishida|first3=Akizumi|last4=Nagase|first4=Toshiro|last5=Rosing|first5=Minik T.}}</ref> and [[microbial mat]] [[fossils]] found in 3.48 billion-year-old [[sandstone]] from [[Western Australia]].<ref name="AP-20131113">{{cite news|last=Borenstein|first=Seth|title=Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom|url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html|date=13 November 2013|agency=Associated Press|access-date=15 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629230719/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html|archive-date=29 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal|last1=Noffke|first1=Nora|author1-link=Nora Noffke|last2=Christian|first2=Daniel|last3=Wacey|first3=David|last4=Hazen|first4=Robert M.|title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia|date=8 November 2013|journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]]|doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030|pmid=24205812|pmc=3870916|volume=13|issue=12|pages=1103–24|bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N}}</ref> More recently, in 2015, "remains of [[Biotic material|biotic life]]" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<ref name="AP-20151019">{{cite news|last=Borenstein|first=Seth|title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth|url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html|date=19 October 2015|work=[[Excite (web portal)|Excite]]|location=Yonkers, NY|publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]]|agency=Associated Press|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001171406/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html|archive-date=1 October 2018|access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf">{{cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=Boehnike|first2=Patrick|last3=Harrison|first3=T. Mark|last4=Mao|first4=Wendy L.|display-authors=3|date=19 October 2015|title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112|pmid=26483481|pmc=4664351|volume=112|issue=47|pages=14518–21|bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B|doi-access=free}} Early edition, published online before print.</ref> In 2017, putative fossilized [[microorganism]]s (or [[Micropaleontology#Microfossils|microfossils]]) were announced to have been discovered in [[hydrothermal vent]] precipitates in the [[Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt|Nuvvuagittuq Belt]] of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28 billion years, the oldest record of life on earth, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" after [[Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago]], and not long after the [[Age of the Earth|formation of the Earth]] 4.54 billion years ago.<ref name="NAT-20170301">{{cite journal|author=Dodd, Matthew S.|author2=Papineau, Dominic|author3=Grenne, Tor|author4=Slack, John F.|author5=Rittner, Martin|author6=Pirajno, Franco|author7=O'Neil, Jonathan|author8=Little, Crispin T. S.|title=Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates|journal=Nature|volume=343|issue=7643|pages=60–64|date=2 March 2017|doi=10.1038/nature21377|pmid=28252057|bibcode=2017Natur.543...60D|s2cid=2420384|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf|access-date=19 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723232142/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf|archive-date=23 July 2018|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20170301">{{cite news|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Zimmer|title=Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/science/earths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html|date=1 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=2 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302042424/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/science/earths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html|archive-date=2 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20170301">{{cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Pallab|title=Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39117523|publisher=BBC News|date=1 March 2017|access-date=2 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302002134/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39117523|archive-date=2 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="4.3b oldest">{{cite news|last1=Dunham|first1=Will|title=Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life|url=http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCAKBN16858B?sp=true|date=1 March 2017|work=Reuters|access-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302114728/http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCAKBN16858B?sp=true|archive-date=2 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to biologist [[Stephen Blair Hedges]], "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the [[universe]]."<ref name="AP-20151019" />

Line 41:

=== Annual variation ===

[[File:Mollweide Cycle.gif|center~~|660px~~|On land, vegetation appears on a scale from brown (low vegetation) to dark green (heavy vegetation); at the ocean surface, phytoplankton are indicated on a scale from purple (low) to yellow (high). This visualization was created with data from satellites including SeaWiFS, and instruments including the NASA/NOAA Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.]]

[[File:Mollweide Cycle.gif|center|On land, vegetation appears on a scale from brown (low vegetation) to dark green (heavy vegetation); at the ocean surface, phytoplankton are indicated on a scale from purple (low) to yellow (high). This visualization was created with data from satellites including SeaWiFS, and instruments including the NASA/NOAA Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.]]

== Artificial biospheres ==

Line 47:

Experimental biospheres, also called [[closed ecological system]]s, have been created to study ecosystems and the potential for supporting life outside the Earth. These include spacecraft and the following terrestrial laboratories:

* [[Biosphere 2]] in [[Arizona]], United States, 3.15 acres (13,000 m2).

* BIOS-1, BIOS-2 and [[BIOS-3]] at the Institute of Biophysics in [[Krasnoyarsk]], [[Siberia]], in what was then the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=BioScience|date=Oct 1997|volume=47|issue=9|pages=575–85|title=Bios-3: Siberian experiments in bioregenerative life support|author=Salisbury FB|author2=[[Josef Gitelson|Gitelson JI]]|author3=Lisovsky GM|doi=10.2307/1313164|pmid=11540303|jstor=1313164|doi-access=free}}</ref>

* BIOS-1, BIOS-2 and [[BIOS-3]] at the Institute of Biophysics in [[Krasnoyarsk]], [[Siberia]], in what was then the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=BioScience|date=Oct 1997|volume=47|issue=9|pages=575–85|title=Bios-3: Siberian experiments in bioregenerative life support|author=Salisbury FB|author2=[[Josef Gitelson|Gitelson JI]]|author3=Lisovsky GM|doi=10.2307/1313164|pmid=11540303|jstor=1313164|doi-access=free |bibcode=1997BiSci..47..575S }}</ref>

* Biosphere J (CEEF, Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities), an experiment in [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nakano|year=1998|title=Dynamic Simulation of Pressure Control System for the Closed Ecology Experiment Facility|url=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110002396764/|journal=Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers B|volume=64|issue=617|pages=107–114|doi=10.1299/kikaib.64.107|display-authors=etal|access-date=2009-11-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318080342/http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110002396764/|archive-date=2012-03-18|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.or.jp/index_e.html|title=Institute for Environmental Sciences|publisher=Ies.or.jp|access-date=2011-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108174355/http://www.ies.or.jp/index_e.html|archive-date=2011-11-08|url-status=live}}</ref>

* Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative ([[MELiSSA]]) at [[Autonomous University of Barcelona]]

Line 61:

* [[Biocoenosis]]

* [[Biosphere model]]

* [[Climate system]]

Line 82:

Line 83:

== Further reading ==

* ''The Biosphere'' (A ''[[Scientific American]]'' Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, {{ISBN|0-7167-0945-7}}. This book, originally the December 1970 ''[[Scientific American]]'' issue, covers virtually every major concern and concept since debated regarding materials and [[energy resource]]s (including [[solar energy]]), [[population]] trends, and [[environmental degradation]] (including [[global warming]]).

* ''The Biosphere'' (A ''[[Scientific American]]'' Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, {{ISBN|0-7167-0945-7}}. This book, originally the December 1970 ''[[Scientific American]]'' issue, covers virtually every major concern and concept since debated regarding materials and [[energy resource]]s (including [[solar energy]]), [[Population (biology)|population]] trends, and [[environmental degradation]] (including [[global warming]]).

== External links ==

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Global sum of all ecosystems on Earth}}
 {{About|the sum of all ecosystems|the sum of all planetary [[Outline of Earth sciences#Earth's spheres|spheres]]|Ecosphere (planetary)|other uses}}
-[[File:Seawifs global biosphere.jpg|thumb|360px|A [[false color]] composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 2001 to August 2017. Provided by the [[SeaWiFS]] Project, [[NASA]]/[[Goddard Space Flight Center]] and [[GeoEye|ORBIMAGE]].{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}]]
+[[File:Seawifs global biosphere.jpg|thumb|A [[false color]] composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 2001 to August 2017. Provided by the [[SeaWiFS]] Project, [[NASA]]/[[Goddard Space Flight Center]] and [[GeoEye|ORBIMAGE]].{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}]]
 The '''biosphere''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|βίος}}'' ({{grc-transl|βίος}})|life||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|σφαῖρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαῖρα}})|sphere}}), also called the '''ecosphere''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|οἶκος}}'' ({{grc-transl|οἶκος}})|settlement, house||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|σφαῖρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαῖρα}})|sphere}}), is the worldwide sum of all [[ecosystem]]s. It can also be termed the zone of [[life]] on the [[Earth]]. The biosphere (which is technically a [[spherical shell]]) is virtually a [[Closed ecological system|closed system with regard to matter]],<ref name="ColumbiaEncyc">[https://web.archive.org/web/20111027194858/http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/biosphere.jsp "Biosphere"] in ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed. (2004) Columbia University Press.</ref> with minimal inputs and outputs. Regarding [[energy]], it is an open system, with [[photosynthesis]] capturing [[solar energy]] at a rate of around 100 [[Watt|terawatts]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nealson|first1=Kenneth H.|last2=Zeki|first2=S.|last3=Conrad|first3=Pamela G.|title=Life: past, present and future|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences|volume=354|issue=1392|year=1999|pages=1923–1939|pmc=1692713|pmid=10670014|doi=10.1098/rstb.1999.0532}}</ref> By the most general [[Geophysiology|biophysiological]] definition, the biosphere is the global [[ecology|ecological]] system integrating all [[living beings]] and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the [[lithosphere]], [[cryosphere]], [[hydrosphere]], and [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. The biosphere is postulated to have [[evolved]], beginning with a process of [[origin of life|biopoiesis]] (life created naturally from {{Nowrap|non-living}} matter, such as simple organic compounds) or [[biogenesis]] (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5&nbsp;billion years ago.<ref name="Campbell 2006">{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Neil A.|author2=Brad Williamson|author3=Robin J. Heyden|title=Biology: Exploring Life|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2006|location=Boston, Massachusetts|url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html|isbn=978-0-13-250882-7|access-date=2008-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html|archive-date=2014-11-02|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20131003">{{cite news|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Zimmer|title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html|date=3 October 2013|work=The New York Times|access-date=3 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003185748/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html|archive-date=3 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 == Earth's biosphere ==
 === Overview ===
-Currently, the total number of [[Cell (biology)|living cells]] on the Earth is estimated to be 10<sup>30</sup>; the total number since the beginning of Earth, as 10<sup>40</sup>, and the total number for the entire time of a [[Planetary habitability|habitable planet Earth]] as 10<sup>41</sup>.<ref name="NYT-20231201">{{cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|author-link=Dennis Overbye|title=Exactly How Much Life Is on Earth? – According to a new study, living cells outnumber stars in the universe, highlighting the deep, underrated link between geophysics and biology.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|date=1 December 2023|work=The New York Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201065236/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CB-20231106">{{cite journal|author=Crockford, Peter W.|display-authors=et al.|title=The geologic history of primary productivity|date=6 November 2023|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=33|issue=21|pages=P7741–4750.E5|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.040|pmid=37827153|bibcode=2023CBio...33E4741C|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is much larger than the total number of estimated stars (and Earth-like planets) in the observable universe as 10<sup>24</sup>, a number which is more than all the grains of beach sand on planet Earth;<ref name="ESA-2020">{{cite web|author=Staff|title=How many stars are there in the Universe?|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|date=2020|work=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200117184622/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|archive-date=17 January 2020|access-date=January 17, 2020}}</ref><ref name="SWIN-20020201">{{cite web|last=Mackie|first=Glen|title=To see the Universe in a Grain of Taranaki Sand|url=https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|date=1 February 2002|work=[[Swinburne University of Technology]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20221228121404/https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|archive-date=28 December 2022|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CNET-20150319">{{cite news|last=Mack|first=Eric|title=There may be more Earth-like planets than grains of sand on all our beaches – New research contends that the Milky Way alone is flush with billions of potentially habitable planets -- and that's just one sliver of the universe.|url=https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|date=19 March 2015|work=[[CNET]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201144523/https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="MNRAS-20150313">{{cite journal|last1=T. Bovaird|first1=T.|last2=Lineweaver|first2=C.H.|last3=Jacobsen|first3=S.K.|title=Using the inclinations of Kepler systems to prioritize new Titius–Bode-based exoplanet predictions|url=https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|date=13 March 2015|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=448|issue=4|pages=3608–3627|doi=10.1093/mnras/stv221|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201151205/https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023|doi-access=free|arxiv=1412.6230}}</ref> but less than the total number of atoms estimated in the observable universe as 10<sup>82</sup>;<ref name="LS-20210711">{{cite news|last=Baker|first=Harry|title=How many atoms are in the observable universe?|url=https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|date=11 July 2021|work=[[Live Science]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201143640/https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref> and the estimated total number of stars in an [[Inflation (cosmology)|inflationary universe]] (observed and unobserved), as 10<sup>100</sup>.<ref name="SR-20200203">{{cite journal|last=Totani|first=Tomonori|title=Emergence of life in an inflationary universe|date=3 February 2020|journal=[[Scientific Reports]]|volume=10|number=1671|page=1671|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-58060-0|doi-access=free|pmid=32015390|pmc=6997386|arxiv=1911.08092|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.1671T}}</ref>
+Currently, the total number of [[Cell (biology)|living cells]] on the Earth is estimated to be 10<sup>30</sup>; the total number since the beginning of Earth, as 10<sup>40</sup>, and the total number for the entire time of a [[Planetary habitability|habitable planet Earth]] as 10<sup>41</sup>.<ref name="NYT-20231201">{{cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|author-link=Dennis Overbye|title=Exactly How Much Life Is on Earth? – According to a new study, living cells outnumber stars in the universe, highlighting the deep, underrated link between geophysics and biology.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|date=1 December 2023|work=The New York Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201065236/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/01/science/space/earth-biology-life.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CB-20231106">{{cite journal|author=Crockford, Peter W.|display-authors=et al.|title=The geologic history of primary productivity|date=6 November 2023|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=33|issue=21|pages=P7741–4750.E5|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.040|pmid=37827153|bibcode=2023CBio...33E4741C|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is much larger than the total number of estimated stars (and Earth-like planets) in the observable universe as 10<sup>24</sup>, a number which is more than all the grains of beach sand on planet Earth;<ref name="ESA-2020">{{cite web|author=Staff|title=How many stars are there in the Universe?|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|date=2020|work=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200117184622/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Herschel/How_many_stars_are_there_in_the_Universe|archive-date=17 January 2020|access-date=January 17, 2020}}</ref><ref name="SWIN-20020201">{{cite web|last=Mackie|first=Glen|title=To see the Universe in a Grain of Taranaki Sand|url=https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|date=1 February 2002|work=[[Swinburne University of Technology]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20221228121404/https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~gmackie/billions.html|archive-date=28 December 2022|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="CNET-20150319">{{cite news|last=Mack|first=Eric|title=There may be more Earth-like planets than grains of sand on all our beaches – New research contends that the Milky Way alone is flush with billions of potentially habitable planets -- and that's just one sliver of the universe.|url=https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|date=19 March 2015|work=[[CNET]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201144523/https://www.cnet.com/science/the-milky-way-is-flush-with-habitable-planets-study-says/|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="MNRAS-20150313">{{cite journal|last1=T. Bovaird|first1=T.|last2=Lineweaver|first2=C.H.|last3=Jacobsen|first3=S.K.|title=Using the inclinations of Kepler systems to prioritize new Titius–Bode-based exoplanet predictions|url=https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|date=13 March 2015|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]|volume=448|issue=4|pages=3608–3627|doi=10.1093/mnras/stv221|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201151205/https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/448/4/3608/970734|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023|doi-access=free|arxiv=1412.6230}}</ref> but less than the total number of atoms estimated in the observable universe as 10<sup>82</sup>;<ref name="LS-20210711">{{cite news|last=Baker|first=Harry|title=How many atoms are in the observable universe?|url=https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|date=11 July 2021|work=[[Live Science]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231201143640/https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html|archive-date=1 December 2023|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref> and the estimated total number of stars in an [[Inflation (cosmology)|inflationary universe]] (observed and unobserved), as 10<sup>100</sup>.<ref name="SR-20200203">{{cite journal|last=Totani|first=Tomonori|title=Emergence of life in an inflationary universe|date=3 February 2020|journal=[[Scientific Reports]]|volume=10|number=1671|article-number=1671|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-58060-0|doi-access=free|pmid=32015390|pmc=6997386|arxiv=1911.08092|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.1671T}}</ref>
 === Age ===
-[[File:Stromatolithe Paléoarchéen - MNHT.PAL.2009.10.1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Stromatolite fossil estimated at 3.2–3.6 billion years old]]
+[[File:Stromatolithe Paléoarchéen - MNHT.PAL.2009.10.1.jpg|thumb|Stromatolite fossil estimated at 3.2–3.6 billion years old]]
 The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest evidence]] for life on Earth includes [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks from [[Western Greenland]]<ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal|title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|doi=10.1038/ngeo2025|date=8 December 2013|volume=7|issue=1|pages=25–28|bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O|last1=Ohtomo|first1=Yoko|last2=Kakegawa|first2=Takeshi|last3=Ishida|first3=Akizumi|last4=Nagase|first4=Toshiro|last5=Rosing|first5=Minik T.}}</ref> and [[microbial mat]] [[fossils]] found in 3.48&nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] from [[Western Australia]].<ref name="AP-20131113">{{cite news|last=Borenstein|first=Seth|title=Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom|url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html|date=13 November 2013|agency=Associated Press|access-date=15 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629230719/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html|archive-date=29 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal|last1=Noffke|first1=Nora|author1-link=Nora Noffke|last2=Christian|first2=Daniel|last3=Wacey|first3=David|last4=Hazen|first4=Robert M.|title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia|date=8 November 2013|journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]]|doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030|pmid=24205812|pmc=3870916|volume=13|issue=12|pages=1103–24|bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N}}</ref> More recently, in 2015, "remains of [[Biotic material|biotic life]]" were found in 4.1&nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<ref name="AP-20151019">{{cite news|last=Borenstein|first=Seth|title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth|url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html|date=19 October 2015|work=[[Excite (web portal)|Excite]]|location=Yonkers, NY|publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]]|agency=Associated Press|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001171406/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html|archive-date=1 October 2018|access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf">{{cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=Boehnike|first2=Patrick|last3=Harrison|first3=T. Mark|last4=Mao|first4=Wendy L.|display-authors=3|date=19 October 2015|title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112|pmid=26483481|pmc=4664351|volume=112|issue=47|pages=14518–21|bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B|doi-access=free}} Early edition, published online before print.</ref> In 2017, putative fossilized [[microorganism]]s (or [[Micropaleontology#Microfossils|microfossils]]) were announced to have been discovered in [[hydrothermal vent]] precipitates in the [[Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt|Nuvvuagittuq Belt]] of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28&nbsp;billion years, the oldest record of life on earth, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" after [[Origin of water on Earth#History of water on Earth|ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago]], and not long after the [[Age of the Earth|formation of the Earth]] 4.54&nbsp;billion years ago.<ref name="NAT-20170301">{{cite journal|author=Dodd, Matthew S.|author2=Papineau, Dominic|author3=Grenne, Tor|author4=Slack, John F.|author5=Rittner, Martin|author6=Pirajno, Franco|author7=O'Neil, Jonathan|author8=Little, Crispin T. S.|title=Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates|journal=Nature|volume=343|issue=7643|pages=60–64|date=2 March 2017|doi=10.1038/nature21377|pmid=28252057|bibcode=2017Natur.543...60D|s2cid=2420384|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf|access-date=19 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723232142/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/1/ppnature21377_Dodd_for%20Symplectic.pdf|archive-date=23 July 2018|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20170301">{{cite news|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Zimmer|title=Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/science/earths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html|date=1 March 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=2 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302042424/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/science/earths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html|archive-date=2 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20170301">{{cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Pallab|title=Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39117523|publisher=BBC News|date=1 March 2017|access-date=2 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302002134/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39117523|archive-date=2 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="4.3b oldest">{{cite news|last1=Dunham|first1=Will|title=Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life|url=http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCAKBN16858B?sp=true|date=1 March 2017|work=Reuters|access-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302114728/http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCAKBN16858B?sp=true|archive-date=2 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to biologist [[Stephen Blair Hedges]], "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the [[universe]]."<ref name="AP-20151019" />
@@ Line 41: / Line 41: @@
 === Annual variation ===
-[[File:Mollweide Cycle.gif|center|660px|On land, vegetation appears on a scale from brown (low vegetation) to dark green (heavy vegetation); at the ocean surface, phytoplankton are indicated on a scale from purple (low) to yellow (high). This visualization was created with data from satellites including SeaWiFS, and instruments including the NASA/NOAA Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.]]
+[[File:Mollweide Cycle.gif|center|On land, vegetation appears on a scale from brown (low vegetation) to dark green (heavy vegetation); at the ocean surface, phytoplankton are indicated on a scale from purple (low) to yellow (high). This visualization was created with data from satellites including SeaWiFS, and instruments including the NASA/NOAA Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.]]
 == Artificial biospheres ==
@@ Line 47: / Line 47: @@
 Experimental biospheres, also called [[closed ecological system]]s, have been created to study ecosystems and the potential for supporting life outside the Earth. These include spacecraft and the following terrestrial laboratories:
 * [[Biosphere 2]] in [[Arizona]], United States, 3.15 acres (13,000&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup>).
-* BIOS-1, BIOS-2 and [[BIOS-3]] at the Institute of Biophysics in [[Krasnoyarsk]], [[Siberia]], in what was then the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=BioScience|date=Oct 1997|volume=47|issue=9|pages=575–85|title=Bios-3: Siberian experiments in bioregenerative life support|author=Salisbury FB|author2=[[Josef Gitelson|Gitelson JI]]|author3=Lisovsky GM|doi=10.2307/1313164|pmid=11540303|jstor=1313164|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+* BIOS-1, BIOS-2 and [[BIOS-3]] at the Institute of Biophysics in [[Krasnoyarsk]], [[Siberia]], in what was then the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=BioScience|date=Oct 1997|volume=47|issue=9|pages=575–85|title=Bios-3: Siberian experiments in bioregenerative life support|author=Salisbury FB|author2=[[Josef Gitelson|Gitelson JI]]|author3=Lisovsky GM|doi=10.2307/1313164|pmid=11540303|jstor=1313164|doi-access=free |bibcode=1997BiSci..47..575S }}</ref>
 * Biosphere J (CEEF, Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities), an experiment in [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nakano|year=1998|title=Dynamic Simulation of Pressure Control System for the Closed Ecology Experiment Facility|url=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110002396764/|journal=Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers B|volume=64|issue=617|pages=107–114|doi=10.1299/kikaib.64.107|display-authors=etal|access-date=2009-11-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318080342/http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110002396764/|archive-date=2012-03-18|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.or.jp/index_e.html|title=Institute for Environmental Sciences|publisher=Ies.or.jp|access-date=2011-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108174355/http://www.ies.or.jp/index_e.html|archive-date=2011-11-08|url-status=live}}</ref>
 * Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative ([[MELiSSA]]) at [[Autonomous University of Barcelona]]
@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 {{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences}}
 {{div col|colwidth=18em}}
+* [[Biocoenosis]]
 * [[Biosphere model]]
 * [[Climate system]]
@@ Line 82: / Line 83: @@
 == Further reading ==
-* ''The Biosphere'' (A ''[[Scientific American]]'' Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, {{ISBN|0-7167-0945-7}}. This book, originally the December 1970 ''[[Scientific American]]'' issue, covers virtually every major concern and concept since debated regarding materials and [[energy resource]]s (including [[solar energy]]), [[population]] trends, and [[environmental degradation]] (including [[global warming]]).
+* ''The Biosphere'' (A ''[[Scientific American]]'' Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, {{ISBN|0-7167-0945-7}}. This book, originally the December 1970 ''[[Scientific American]]'' issue, covers virtually every major concern and concept since debated regarding materials and [[energy resource]]s (including [[solar energy]]), [[Population (biology)|population]] trends, and [[environmental degradation]] (including [[global warming]]).
 == External links ==

Biosphere: Difference between revisions

Navigation menu

Search