Cooking: Difference between revisions

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'''Cooking''', also known as '''cookery''' or professionally as the '''culinary arts''', is the art, [[science]] and craft of using [[heat]] to make [[food]] more [[palatable]], [[digestible]], [[nutritious]], or [[Food safety|safe]]. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open [[fire]], to using [[electric stove]]s, to [[baking]] in various types of [[oven]]s, to [[Boiling#In_cooking|boiling]] and [[Blanching_(cooking)|blanching]] in [[water]], reflecting local conditions, techniques and traditions. Cooking is an aspect of all human societies and a [[cultural universal]].

Types of cooking also depend on the skill levels and training of the [[Cook (profession)|cooks]]. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and [[chef]]s in [[restaurant]]s and other food establishments.

Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to [[human]]s. Archeological evidence of cooking fires from at least 300,000 years ago exists, but some estimate that humans started cooking up to 2 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325112804/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 March 2019|title=A Brief History of Cooking With Fire|last=Rupp|first=Rebecca|date=2015-09-02|website=National Geographic|access-date=2019-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wrangham |first1=Richard |title=Catching Fire: How cooking made us human |date=2009}}</ref>

The expansion of [[agriculture]], [[commerce]], [[trade]], and [[transport]]ation between [[civilization]]s in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of [[pottery]] for holding and [[boiling]] of [[water]], expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced [[Scientific method|scientific]] techniques to food preparation to further enhance the [[Flavoring|flavor]] of the dish served.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A New Spin on Cooking |journal=Scientific American |volume=304 |issue=3 |pages=23 |author1=W. Wayt Gibbs |author2=Nathan Myhrvold |bibcode=2011SciAm.304c..23G |year=2011 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0311-23a |pmid = 21438483}}</ref>

[[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic analysis]] suggests that early hominids may have adopted cooking 1–2 million years ago.<ref name=PNAS>{{cite journal| title=Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo | first=Chris | last=Organ | journal= [[PNAS]] | date=22 August 2011 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107806108 | pmid=21873223 | pmc=3167533 | volume=108 | issue=35 | pages=14555–14559| bibcode=2011PNAS..10814555O | doi-access=free}}</ref> {{Nowrap|Re-analysis}} of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the [[Wonderwerk Cave]] in South Africa has provided evidence supporting [[control of fire by early humans]] 1 million years ago.<ref name=Pringle2012>{{citation |date=2 April 2012 |author=Pringle, Heather |title=Quest for Fire Began Earlier Than Thought |journal=ScienceNOW |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/04/quest-for-fire-began-earlier-tha.html?ref=em |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415203914/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/04/quest-for-fire-began-earlier-tha.html?ref=em |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |access-date=2012-04-04 }}</ref> In his seminal work ''[[Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human]]'', [[Richard Wrangham]] suggested that evolution of bipedalism and a large cranial capacity meant that early ''[[Homo habilis]]'' regularly cooked food.<ref>Wrangham, R. and Conklin-Brittain, N., 2003. Cooking as a biological trait. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 136(1), pp. 35–46</ref><ref name="pollard">{{Cite book |title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart |last=Pollard |first=Elizabeth |publisher=Norton |year=2015|isbn=978-0-393-92207-3 |location=New York |pages=13}}</ref> However, unequivocal evidence in the archaeological record for the controlled use of fire begins at 400,000 BCE, long after ''[[Homo erectus]]''.<ref name="Luke">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120402162548.htm|title=Evidence That Human Ancestors Used Fire One Million Years Ago|access-date=2013-10-27|last=Luke|first=Kim|quote=An international team led by the University of Toronto and Hebrew University has identified the earliest known evidence of the use of fire by human ancestors. Microscopic traces of wood ash, alongside animal bones and stone tools, were found in a layer dated to one million years ago}}</ref><ref name="discovermagazine.com">{{Cite web|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire|title=Archaeologists Find Earliest Evidence of Humans Cooking With Fire|website=DiscoverMagazine.com|access-date=8 November 2015|archive-date=27 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227181202/http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=January 2023}} Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140129-oldest-hearth-israel-cave-new-human-species-discovery-archaeology-science/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201022042/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140129-oldest-hearth-israel-cave-new-human-species-discovery-archaeology-science/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=1 February 2014 | title=Oldest Known Hearth Found in Israel Cave | magazine=National Geographic | date=29 January 2014 | access-date=17 March 2014 | author=Smith, Roff}}</ref> in the form of ancient hearths, [[earth oven]]s, burnt animal bones, and [[flint]], are found across Europe and the Middle East. The oldest evidence (via heated fish teeth from a deep cave) of controlled use of fire to cook food [[Timeline of human evolution#Homo|by archaic humans was dated to ~780,000 years ago]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient human relative used fire, surprising discoveries suggest |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/12/05/homo-naledi-fire-evolution/ |access-date=11 December 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zohar |first1=Irit |last2=Alperson-Afil |first2=Nira |last3=Goren-Inbar |first3=Naama |last4=Prévost |first4=Marion |last5=Tütken |first5=Thomas |last6=Sisma-Ventura |first6=Guy |last7=Hershkovitz |first7=Israel |last8=Najorka |first8=Jens |title=Evidence for the cooking of fish 780,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |date=December 2022 |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=2016–2028 |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01910-z |pmid=36376603 |bibcode=2022NatEE...6.2016Z |s2cid=253522354 |language=en |issn=2397-334X |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365369121 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Anthropologist]]s think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago when [[hearth]]s first appeared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Pennisi_99.html |title= Pennisi: Did Cooked Tubers Spur the Evolution of Big Brains? |publisher=Cogweb.ucla.edu |access-date= 7 November 2013}}</ref>

Recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old.<ref name="SI-2016cook">{{cite web |author= |title=What Does It Mean To Be Human? – Hearths & Shelters |url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/behavior/hearths-shelters |date=12 August 2016 |work=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref>

Communication between the [[Old World]] and the [[New World]] in the [[Columbian Exchange]] influenced the history of cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the New World, such as [[potato]]es, [[tomato]]es, [[maize]], [[bean]]s, [[bell pepper]], [[chili pepper]], [[vanilla]], [[pumpkin]], [[cassava]], [[avocado]], [[peanut]], [[pecan]], [[cashew]], [[pineapple]], [[blueberry]], [[Helianthus|sunflower]], [[chocolate]], [[gourd]]s, [[green bean]]s, and [[cucurbita|squash]], had a profound effect on Old World cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the Old World, such as [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[wheat]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], [[rice]], [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[pea]]s, [[chickpea]]s, [[mustard plant|mustard]], and [[carrot]]s, similarly changed New World cooking.<ref name = "history">{{cite journal |last1= Nunn |first1= Nathan |last2= Qian |first2= Nancy |year= 2010 |title= The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |journal= [[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume= 24 |issue= 2 |pages= 163–188 |jstor= 25703506 |doi= 10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |citeseerx= 10.1.1.232.9242 }}</ref>

In the 17th and 18th centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the 19th-century "Age of [[Nationalism]]", [[cuisine]] became a defining symbol of national identity.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

The [[Industrial Revolution]] brought mass-production, mass-marketing, and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nordion.com/documents/the-history-of-food-irradiation.pdf |title=The History of Food Irradiation |access-date=2012-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116012256/http://www.nordion.com/documents/The-History-of-Food-Irradiation.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2013 }}</ref> In the 1920s, [[frozen food|freezing methods]], [[cafeteria]]s, and [[fast food restaurant]]s emerged.

Most ingredients in cooking are derived from living [[organism]]s. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and [[spice]]s come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of [[fungi]]. Cooks also use [[water]] and [[mineral]]s such as [[salt]]. Cooks can also use [[wine]] or [[Distilled beverage|spirits]].

Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called ''[[Protein (nutrient)|proteins]]'', ''[[carbohydrate]]s'' and ''[[fat]]s''. They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves a manipulation of the chemical properties of these molecules.

The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. [[Polysaccharide|Long-chain sugars]] such as [[starch]] tend to break down into more digestible [[Monosaccharide|simpler sugars]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Öste|first=Rickard E.|title=Nutritional and Toxicological Consequences of Food Processing|chapter=Digestibility of Processed Food Protein|date=1991|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2626-5_27|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=289|pages=371–388|place=Boston, MA|publisher=Springer US|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-2626-5_27|isbn=978-1-4899-2628-9|access-date=2021-05-19}}</ref> If the sugars are heated so that all water of [[crystallisation]] is driven off, [[caramelization]] starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of [[carbon]], and other breakdown products producing [[caramel]]. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins causes the [[Maillard reaction]], a basic flavor-enhancing technique.

An [[emulsion]] of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, provide thickening to the dish being cooked. In [[European cuisine|European]] cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a [[roux]] is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guide.michelin.com/sg/dining-in/what-is-roux-sg/news|title=What is...roux?|website=MICHELIN Guide|language=en|access-date=2019-02-04|archive-date=4 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204231411/https://guide.michelin.com/sg/dining-in/what-is-roux-sg/news|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or [[corn starch]] and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous [[saccharide]]s during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of [[sauce]]s. This thickening will break down, however, under additional heat.

Types of fat include [[vegetable oil]]s, animal products such as butter and [[lard]], as well as fats from grains, including [[maize]] and [[flax]] oils. Fats are used in a number of ways in cooking and baking. To prepare [[stir fry|stir fries]], [[grilled cheese]] or [[pancake]]s, the pan or griddle is often coated with fat or oil. Fats are also used as an ingredient in baked goods such as [[cookies]], cakes and pies. Fats can reach temperatures higher than the boiling point of water, and are often used to conduct high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying, deep frying or sautéing. Fats are used to add flavor to food (e.g., butter or bacon fat), prevent food from sticking to pans and create a desirable texture.

Fats are one of the three main [[macronutrient]] groups in human [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], along with [[carbohydrate]]s and [[protein]]s,<ref name="webster2">Entry for [[mwod:fat|"fat"]] {{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fat |title=Fat &#124; Definition of Fat by Merriam-Webster |access-date=8 December 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725084302/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fat |url-status=bot: unknown }} in the online Merriam-Webster disctionary, sense 3.2. Accessed on 2020-08-09</ref><ref name="mckin20142">{{Cite web |title=Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat |url=http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921024358/http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm |archive-date=21 September 2014 |access-date=20 September 2014 |website=McKinley Health Center |publisher=[[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]]}}</ref> and the main components of common food products like [[milk]], [[butter]], [[tallow]], [[lard]], [[salt pork]], and [[cooking oil]]s. They are a major and dense source of [[food energy]] for many animals and play important structural and [[metabolic]] functions, in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and [[thermal insulation]].<ref name="khan00002">{{cite web |title=Introduction to Energy Storage |url=http://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/introduction-to-energy-storage |publisher=[[Khan Academy]]}}</ref> The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few [[essential fatty acid]]s that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some [[Flavoring|flavor]] and [[aroma]] ingredients and [[vitamin]]s that are [[Lipophilicity|not water-soluble]].<ref name="sand20162">Thomas A. B. Sanders (2016): "The Role of Fats in Human Diet". Pages 1–20 of ''Functional Dietary Lipids''. Woodhead/Elsevier, 332 pages. {{isbn|978-1-78242-247-1}}{{doi|10.1016/B978-1-78242-247-1.00001-6}}</ref>

Edible animal material, including [[muscle]], [[offal]], milk, [[egg (food)|eggs]] and [[egg white]]s, contains substantial amounts of protein.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Reynolds |first1=Daman |last2=Caminiti |first2=Jeff |last3=Edmundson |first3=Scott |last4=Gao |first4=Song |last5=Wick |first5=Macdonald |last6=Huesemann |first6=Michael |date=2022-07-12 |title=Seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable components in the human diet |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=855–861 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqac190 |issn=0002-9165 |pmid=35820048 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="nih1">{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Protein in diet |url=https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002467.htm |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health}}</ref><ref name=":01">{{Cite web |title=High-Protein Alternatives to Meat |url=https://getpocket.com/explore/item/high-protein-alternatives-to-meat |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=Pocket |language=en}}</ref> Almost all vegetable matter (in particular [[legume]]s and [[seed]]s) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=cooking - Fun_with_Words - 博客园 |url=https://www.cnblogs.com/funwithwords/p/16615263.html |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.cnblogs.com |language=zh-cn}}</ref> Mushrooms have high protein content.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Meiqi |last2=Zhao |first2=Ruilin |date=2023-03-01 |title=A review on nutritional advantages of edible mushrooms and its industrialization development situation in protein meat analogues |journal=Journal of Future Foods |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.jfutfo.2022.09.001 |issn=2772-5669|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rahi |first1=Deepak K. |last2=Malik |first2=Deepika |date=2016 |title=Diversity of Mushrooms and Their Metabolites of Nutraceutical and Therapeutic Significance |url=https://www.academia.edu/61123496 |journal=Journal of Mycology |volume=2016 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1155/2016/7654123 |doi-access=free |issn=2356-7481}}</ref> Any of these may be sources of [[essential amino acid]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baofu |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7QwBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Any+of+these+may+be+sources+of+essential+amino+acids%22&pg=PA6 |title=The Future of Post-Human Culinary Art: Towards a New Theory of Ingredients and Techniques |date=2013-01-03 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-4484-0 |language=en}}</ref> When [[protein]]s are heated they become [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] (unfolded) and change texture. In many cases, this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more [[friable]] – meat becomes ''cooked'' and is more friable and less flexible. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of [[albumen]] in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component in baking cakes, and also underpins many desserts based on [[meringue]].

Cooking often involves water, and water-based liquids. These can be added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (this is typically done with water, [[stock (food)|stock]] or wine). Alternatively, the foods themselves can release water. A favorite method of adding flavor to dishes is to save the liquid for use in other [[recipe]]s. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in [[steaming]], [[simmering]], [[boiling]], [[braising]] and [[blanching (cooking)|blanching]]. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased [[evaporation]], which [[concentrate]]s the remaining [[Flavoring|flavor]] and ingredients; this is a critical component of both [[stewing]] and sauce making.

Vitamins and minerals are required for normal [[metabolism]]; and what the body cannot manufacture itself must come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables ([[Vitamin C]]), carrots, [[liver (food)|liver]] ([[Vitamin A]]), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil ([[Vitamin D]]) and fresh green vegetables ([[Vitamin K]]). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, [[calcium]], [[magnesium]], [[sodium chloride]] and [[sulfur]]; and in very small quantities copper, [[zinc]] and [[selenium]]. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/articles/44825.aspx|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909071119/http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/articles/44825.aspx|url-status=dead |title=Loss of nutrients when vegetables are cooked|archivedate=9 September 2009}}</ref> in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/359175.stm |work=BBC News | title=Cooking vegetables 'improves benefits' | date=2 June 1999 | access-date=30 April 2010}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2013}} The [[bioavailability]] of some vitamins such as [[thiamin]], [[vitamin B6]], [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], [[folate]], and [[carotenoid]]s are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Hotz | first1=Christine | last2=Gibson | first2=Rosalind S. | year=2007 | title=Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | volume=137 | issue=4| pages=1097–1100 | doi=10.1093/jn/137.4.1097 | pmid=17374686 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017-10-12 |title=Effect of different cooking methods on the content of vitamins and true retention in selected vegetables |pmc=6049644 |last1=Lee |first1=S. |last2=Choi |first2=Y. |last3=Jeong |first3=H. S. |last4=Lee |first4=J. |last5=Sung |first5=J. |journal=Food Science and Biotechnology |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=333–342 |doi=10.1007/s10068-017-0281-1 |pmid=30263756 }}</ref>

There are many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving. Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the result. Some major hot cooking techniques include:

:[[Baking]] – [[Blind Baking|Baking Blind]]

:[[Boiling in cooking|Boiling]] – [[Blanching (cooking)|Blanching]] – [[Braising]] – [[Coddling]] – [[Double steaming]] – [[Infusion]] – [[Poaching (cooking)|Poaching]] – [[Pressure cooking]] – [[Simmering]] – [[Smothering (food)|Smothering]] – [[Steaming]] – [[Steeping]] – [[Stewing]] – [[Stone boiling]] – [[Vacuum flask cooking]]

:[[Frying|Fry]] – [[Air fryer|Air frying]] — [[Deep frying]] – [[Gentle frying]] – [[Hot salt frying]] – [[Hot sand frying]] – [[Pan frying]] – [[Pressure frying]] – [[Sautéing]] – [[Shallow frying]] – [[Stir frying]] – [[Vacuum fryer|Vacuum frying]]

:[[Steaming]] works by boiling water continuously, causing it to vaporise into steam; the steam then carries heat to the nearby food, thus cooking the food. By many it is considered a healthy form of cooking, holding nutrients within the vegetable or meat being cooked.

: [[En papillote]] – The food is put into a pouch and then baked, allowing its own moisture to steam the food.

:[[Sous vide]]

As of 2021, over 2.6 billion people cook using open fires or inefficient stoves using [[kerosene]], [[biomass]], and [[coal]] as fuel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Household air pollution |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Polluting cooking methods, used by billions of people around the world, remain a threat to women's health |url=https://www.equaltimes.org/polluting-cooking-methods-used-by |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=Equal Times |language=en}}</ref> These cooking practices use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household [[air pollution]], causing 3.8 million premature deaths annually. Of these deaths, 27% are from [[pneumonia]], 27% from [[ischaemic heart disease]], 20% from [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], 18% from [[stroke]], and 8% from [[lung cancer]]. Women and young children are disproportionately affected, since they spend the most time near the hearth.<ref name="who-airpollution">{{cite web |title=Household air pollution and health |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=12 April 2022 |date=22 September 2021}}</ref>

To prevent those injuries there are protections such as cooking clothing, anti-slip shoes, fire extinguisher and more.

The [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilizing]] effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. Some [[food spoilage]] bacteria such as ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' or ''[[Bacillus cereus]]'' can form spores that survive cooking or boiling, which then [[germination|germinate]] and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922234817/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|url-status=dead |title=Safe Food Australia – A Guide to the Food Safety Standards|archivedate=22 September 2010}}</ref>

Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods which are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw [[cereal]] grains are hard to digest, while [[kidney bean]]s are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of [[phytohaemagglutinin]], which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at {{convert|100|C}}.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noah ND, Bender AE, Reaidi GB, Gilbert RJ |title=News, Notes, And Epidemiology |journal=Br Med J |volume=281 |issue=6234 |pages=236–237 |date=July 1980 |pmid=7407532 |doi=10.1136/bmj.281.6234.235 |pmc=1713670}}</ref>

Proponents of [[raw foodism]] argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing [[vitamin C]], the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|title=Potato, nutrition and diet – International Year of the Potato 2008|access-date=14 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105095547/http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|archive-date=5 November 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, research has shown that in the specific case of [[carotenoid]]s a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/>

[[Sulforaphane]], a [[glucosinolate]] breakdown product, is present in vegetables such as [[broccoli]], and is mostly destroyed when the vegetable is boiled.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Jin | first1=Y. | last2=Wang | first2=M. | last3=Rosen | first3=R. T. | last4=Ho | first4=C. T. | title=Thermal Degradation of Sulforaphane in Aqueous Solution | doi=10.1021/jf990082e | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume=47 | issue=8 | pages=3121–3123 | year=1999 | pmid= 10552618| bibcode=1999JAFC...47.3121J }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bongoni|first1=R|last2=Verkerk|first2=R|last3=Steenbekkers|first3=B|last4=Dekker| last5=Stieger|first4=M|title= Evaluation of Different Cooking Conditions on Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) to Improve the Nutritional Value and Consumer Acceptance.|journal= Plant Foods for Human Nutrition|doi=10.1007/s11130-014-0420-2|volume=69|issue=3|pages=228–234|pmid=24853375|year=2014|s2cid=35228794}}</ref> Although there has been some basic research on how [[sulforaphane]] might exert beneficial effects in vivo, there is no high-quality evidence for its efficacy against human diseases.

In a human epidemiological analysis by [[Richard Doll]] and [[Richard Peto]] in 1981, diet was estimated to cause a large percentage of cancers.<ref>{{Cite journal

| last1=Doll | first1=R.

| last2=Peto | first2=R.

| title=The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today

| journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute

| volume =66

| issue=6

| pages=1191–1308

| year =1981

| pmid =7017215

| doi=10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192

}}</ref> Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer |author=Willett WC |journal=Environ Health Perspect |year= 1995 |issue=Suppl 8 |pages=165–170 |pmid=8741778 |pmc=1518978 |doi=10.1289/ehp.95103s8165 |volume=103 |bibcode=1995EnvHP.103S.165W }}</ref> Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens">{{cite book |title=Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet |url=https://archive.org/details/carcinogensantic0000nati |url-access=registration |publisher=National Academy Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-309-05391-4 }}</ref>

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates [[heterocyclic amine]]s (HCA's), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the [[National Cancer Institute]] found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<ref name=amines>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats |publisher=[[National Cancer Institute]] |year=2018 }}</ref> While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCA's in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below {{convert|212|F}} creates "negligible amounts" of HCA's. Also, [[microwaving]] meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat.<ref name=amines/> [[Nitrosamine]]s are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. [[Vitamin C|Ascorbate]], which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens"/><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Cancer Res. |year=1983 |volume=43 |issue=5 Suppl|pages=2435s–2440s |title=Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food |author=Scanlan RA. |pmid= 6831466 }}</ref>

Baking, grilling or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of [[acrylamide]]. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; [[Cancer Research UK]] categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |publisher=Cancer Research UK |title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109155615/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Cooking food at high temperature may create [[advanced glycation end-product]]s (AGEs) that are believed to be involved in a number of diseases, including diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer and cardiovascular diseases, as well as in ageing. AGEs are a group of compounds that are formed between reducing sugars and amino acids via [[Maillard reaction]]. These compounds impart colors, tastes and smells that are specific to these food, but may also be deleterious to health.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Am J Lifestyle Med|date= May 2017 |volume=13|issue=4|pages=384–404| doi= 10.1177/1559827617708991|title=Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification |first1=Chandan |last1=Prasad |first2= Kathleen E |last2=Davis|first3= Victorine |last3=Imrhan |first4= Shanil|last4= Juma |first5= Parakat |last5=Vijayagopal |pmid= 31285723 |pmc= 6600625 }}</ref> Dry heat (e.g. in roasting or grilling) can significantly increase the production of AGEs, as well as food rich in animal protein and fats. The production of AGEs during cooking can be significantly reduced by cooking in water or moist heat, reducing the cooking times and temperatures, as well as by first marinating the meat in acidic ingredients such as lemon juice and vinegar.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=J Am Diet Assoc|date= June 2010 |volume=110|issue=6|pages=911–16.e12| doi= 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018|title=Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet|first1=Jaime |last1=Uribarri |first2= Sandra |last2=Woodruff|first3= Susan|last3= Goodman|first4= Weijing |last4=Cai|first5= Xue |last5=Chen|first6= Renata |last6=Pyzik|first7= Angie |last7=Yong|first8= Gary E |last8=Striker|first9= Helen|last9= Vlassara|pmid= 20497781 |pmc= 3704564 }}</ref>

Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as [[Hervé This]] (chemist), [[Nicholas Kurti]] (physicist), [[Peter Barham]] (physicist), [[Harold McGee]] (author), [[Shirley Corriher]] (biochemist, author), [[Robert Wolke]] (chemist, author.) It is different for the application of scientific knowledge to cooking, that is "molecular cooking" (for the technique) or "molecular cuisine" (for a culinary style), for which chefs such as Raymond Blanc, Philippe and Christian Conticini, [[Ferran Adria]], [[Heston Blumenthal]], [[Pierre Gagnaire]] (chef).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guler|first=Ozan|title=The Harmony of Science and Food:Molecular Gastronomy|publisher=Strategic Researchers Academy Publishing|date= 2019|isbn=978-605-69709-1-7}}</ref>

Chemical processes central to cooking include hydrolysis (in particular beta elimination of pectins, during the thermal treatment of plant tissues), pyrolysis, and glycation reactions wrongly named [[Maillard reactions]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.food-info.net/uk/colour/maillard.htm|title=Food-Info.net : Maillard reactions|website=www.food-info.net|access-date=2017-03-29}}</ref><ref>Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy, CRC Press, 2021</ref>

Cooking foods with heat depends on many factors: the [[specific heat]] of an object, [[thermal conductivity]], and (perhaps most significantly) the difference in temperature between the two objects. [[Thermal diffusivity]] is the combination of specific heat, conductivity and [[density]] that determines how long it will take for the food to reach a certain temperature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barham|first=Peter|title=The Science of Cooking|page=39}}</ref>

Home cooking has traditionally been a process carried out informally in a home or around a [[Communal oven|communal fire]], and can be enjoyed by all members of the family, although in many cultures women bear primary responsibility.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Cecile|title=Men at Work: Labour, Maculinities, Development|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=225}}</ref> Cooking is also often carried out outside of personal quarters, for example at restaurants, or schools. [[Bakeries]] were one of the earliest forms of cooking outside the home, and bakeries in the past often offered the cooking of pots of food provided by their customers as an additional service. In the present day, factory food preparation has become common, with many "ready-to-eat" as well as "ready-to-cook" foods being prepared and cooked in factories and home cooks using a mixture of [[wikt:from scratch|scratch made]], and factory made foods together to make a [[meal]]. The nutritional value of including more commercially prepared foods has been found to be inferior to home-made foods.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nutritional Quality of Food Prepared at Home and Away From Home, 1977–2008|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib105.aspx|website=www.ers.usda.gov|access-date=2015-11-21|last1=Lin|first1=Biing-Hwan|last2=Guthrie|first2=Joanne|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122104524/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib105.aspx|archive-date=22 November 2015}}</ref> Home-cooked meals tend to be healthier with fewer calories, and less [[saturated fat]], [[Cholesterol embolism|cholesterol]] and [[sodium]] on a per calorie basis while providing more [[Dietary fiber|fiber]], [[calcium]], and [[iron]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Impact of cooking and home food preparation interventions among adults: outcomes and implications for future programs |journal=Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior |date=2014-08-01 |issn=1878-2620|pmc=4063875 |pmid=24703245 |pages=259–276 |volume=46|issue=4|doi=10.1016/j.jneb.2014.02.001|first1=Marla|last1=Reicks|first2=Amanda C. |last2=Trofholz |first3=Jamie S.|last3=Stang|first4=Melissa N.|last4=Laska}}</ref> The ingredients are also directly sourced, so there is control over authenticity, taste, and nutritional value. The superior nutritional quality of home-cooking could therefore play a role in preventing [[Chronic condition|chronic disease]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Benefits and Barriers to Healthful Eating What Are the Consequences of Decreased Food Preparation Ability?|journal=American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine|date=2012-03-01|issn=1559-8276|pages=152–158|volume=6|issue=2|doi=10.1177/1559827611426394|first1=Lu Ann Laurice|last1=Soliah|first2=Janelle Marshall|last2=Walter|first3=Sheila Ann|last3=Jones|citeseerx=10.1.1.1026.8612|s2cid=71797396}}</ref> Cohort studies following the elderly over 10 years show that adults who cook their own meals have significantly lower mortality, even when controlling for confounding variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cooking frequency may enhance survival in Taiwanese elderly|journal=Public Health Nutrition|date=2012-07-01 |issn=1475-2727 |pmid=22578892 |pages=1142–1149|volume=15 |issue=7|doi=10.1017/S136898001200136X|first1=Rosalind Chia-Yu|last1=Chen |first2=Meei-Shyuan|last2=Lee|first3=Yu-Hung|last3=Chang|first4=Mark L.|last4=Wahlqvist|url=http://ir.nhri.org.tw/bitstream/3990099045/6476/1/PUB22578892.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ir.nhri.org.tw/bitstream/3990099045/6476/1/PUB22578892.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

"Home-cooking" may be associated with [[comfort food]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VMmDwAAQBAJ&q=Home-cooking+may+be+associated+with+comfort+food&pg=PT106|title=Comfort Food: Meaning and Memories|last1=Jones|first1=Michael Owen|last2=Long|first2=Lucy M.|date=2017|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-4968-1086-1|language=en}}</ref> and some commercially produced foods and restaurant meals are presented through advertising or [[packaging]] as having been "home-cooked", regardless of their actual origin. This trend began in the 1920s and is attributed to people in urban areas of the U.S. wanting homestyle food even though their schedules and smaller kitchens made cooking harder.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Just Like Home: "Home Cooking" and the Domestication of the American Restaurant |journal=Gastronomica |date=Fall 2002 |pages=43–52 |volume=2 |issue=4 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43 |first=Samantha |last=Barbas |jstor=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=articles |url-access=subscription }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>