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{{Short description|Method of biological systematics in evolutionary biology}} | {{Short description|Method of biological systematics in evolutionary biology}} | ||
{{About||the scientific journal|Cladistics (journal) | {{About||the scientific journal|Cladistics (journal)}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} | ||
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Cladistics findings are posing a difficulty for [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], where the rank and (genus-)naming of established groupings may turn out to be inconsistent. | Cladistics findings are posing a difficulty for [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], where the rank and (genus-)naming of established groupings may turn out to be inconsistent. | ||
Cladistics is now the most commonly used method to classify organisms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad5.html|title=The Need for Cladistics|website= | Cladistics is now the most commonly used method to classify organisms.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad5.html |title=The Need for Cladistics |editor-last1= Guralnick |editor-first1=Rob |editor-last2= Smith |editor-first2= Dave |date= 1994 |website=Journey Into Phylogenetic Systematics |publisher= [[University of California, Berkeley]] |access-date=12 August 2018}}</ref> | ||
== History == | == History == | ||
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Originally conceived, if only in essence, by Willi Hennig in a book published in 1950, cladistics did not flourish until its translation into English in 1966 (Lewin 1997). Today, cladistics is the most popular method for inferring phylogenetic trees from morphological data. | Originally conceived, if only in essence, by Willi Hennig in a book published in 1950, cladistics did not flourish until its translation into English in 1966 (Lewin 1997). Today, cladistics is the most popular method for inferring phylogenetic trees from morphological data. | ||
In the 1990s, the development of effective [[polymerase chain reaction]] techniques allowed the application of cladistic methods to [[biochemical]] and [[molecular genetics|molecular genetic]] traits of organisms, vastly expanding the amount of data available for phylogenetics. At the same time, cladistics rapidly became popular in evolutionary biology, because | In the 1990s, the development of effective [[polymerase chain reaction]] techniques allowed the application of cladistic methods to [[biochemical]] and [[molecular genetics|molecular genetic]] traits of organisms, vastly expanding the amount of data available for phylogenetics. At the same time, cladistics rapidly became popular in evolutionary biology, because computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics. | ||
== Methodology == | == Methodology == | ||
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{{more citations needed section|date=April 2016}} | {{more citations needed section|date=April 2016}} | ||
The cladistic method interprets each shared character state transformation as a potential piece of evidence for grouping. [[Synapomorphies]] (shared, derived character states) are viewed as evidence of grouping, while [[symplesiomorphies]] (shared ancestral character states) are not. The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a [[cladogram]] – a [[Tree (graph theory)|tree]]-shaped diagram ([[dendrogram]])<ref>{{Harvnb|Weygoldt|1998}}</ref> that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters and originally calculated by hand, [[DNA sequencing|genetic sequencing]] data and [[computational phylogenetics]] are now commonly used in phylogenetic analyses, and the [[Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)|parsimony]] criterion has been abandoned by many phylogeneticists in favor of more "sophisticated" but less parsimonious evolutionary models of character state transformation. Cladists contend that these models are unjustified because there is no evidence that they recover more "true" or "correct" results from actual empirical data sets <ref>{{Citation |last1=Rindal |first1=Eirik |last2=Brower |first2=Andrew V. Z. |date=2011 |title=Do model-based phylogenetic analyses perform better than parsimony? A test with empirical data |journal=Cladistics |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=331–334|doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2010.00342.x |pmid=34875779 |s2cid=84907350 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | The cladistic method interprets each shared character state transformation as a potential piece of evidence for grouping. [[Synapomorphies]] (shared, derived character states) are viewed as evidence of grouping, while [[symplesiomorphies]] (shared ancestral character states) are not. The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a [[cladogram]] – a [[Tree (graph theory)|tree]]-shaped diagram ([[dendrogram]])<ref>{{Harvnb|Weygoldt|1998}}</ref> that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters and originally calculated by hand, [[DNA sequencing|genetic sequencing]] data and [[computational phylogenetics]] are now commonly used in phylogenetic analyses, and the [[Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)|parsimony]] criterion has been abandoned by many phylogeneticists in favor of more "sophisticated" but less parsimonious evolutionary models of character state transformation. Cladists contend that these models are unjustified because there is no evidence that they recover more "true" or "correct" results from actual empirical data sets <ref>{{Citation |last1=Rindal |first1=Eirik |last2=Brower |first2=Andrew V. Z. |date=2011 |title=Do model-based phylogenetic analyses perform better than parsimony? A test with empirical data |journal=Cladistics |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=331–334|doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2010.00342.x |pmid=34875779 |s2cid=84907350 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Cladi..27..331R }}</ref> | ||
Every cladogram is based on a particular dataset analyzed with a particular method. Datasets are tables consisting of [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular]], morphological, [[Ethology|ethological]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Jerison|2003|p=254}}</ref> and/or other characters and a list of [[operational taxonomic unit]]s (OTUs), which may be genes, individuals, populations, species, or larger taxa that are presumed to be monophyletic and therefore to form, all together, one large clade; phylogenetic analysis infers the branching pattern within that clade. Different datasets and different methods, not to mention violations of the mentioned assumptions, often result in different cladograms. Only scientific investigation can show which is more likely to be correct. | Every cladogram is based on a particular dataset analyzed with a particular method. Datasets are tables consisting of [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular]], morphological, [[Ethology|ethological]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Jerison|2003|p=254}}</ref> and/or other characters and a list of [[operational taxonomic unit]]s (OTUs), which may be genes, individuals, populations, species, or larger taxa that are presumed to be monophyletic and therefore to form, all together, one large clade; phylogenetic analysis infers the branching pattern within that clade. Different datasets and different methods, not to mention violations of the mentioned assumptions, often result in different cladograms. Only scientific investigation can show which is more likely to be correct. | ||
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|- valign="top" | |- valign="top" | ||
| Holophyly, [[Monophyly]] | | Holophyly, [[Monophyly]] | ||
| A [[clade]], a monophyletic taxon, is a taxon that consists of the last common ancestor and all its descendants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Podani |first=János |date=2010-08-01 |title=Monophyly and paraphyly: A discourse without end? |journal=Taxon |language=en |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=1011–1015 |doi=10.1002/tax.594002|doi-access=free }}</ref> | | A [[clade]], a monophyletic taxon, is a taxon that consists of the last common ancestor and all its descendants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Podani |first=János |date=2010-08-01 |title=Monophyly and paraphyly: A discourse without end? |journal=Taxon |language=en |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=1011–1015 |doi=10.1002/tax.594002|bibcode=2010Taxon..59.1011P |doi-access=free }}</ref> | ||
| A clade is characterized by one or more '''apomorphies''': derived character states present in the first member of the taxon, inherited by its descendants (unless secondarily lost), and not inherited by any other taxa. | | A clade is characterized by one or more '''apomorphies''': derived character states present in the first member of the taxon, inherited by its descendants (unless secondarily lost), and not inherited by any other taxa. | ||
|- valign="top" | |- valign="top" | ||
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== Criticism == | == Criticism == | ||
Cladistics, either generally or in specific applications, has been criticized from its beginnings. Decisions as to whether particular character states are [[Homology (biology)|homologous]], a precondition of their being synapomorphies, have been challenged as involving [[circular reasoning]] and subjective judgements.<ref name="AdraEdgeLieb02">{{Harvnb|Adrain|Edgecombe|Lieberman|2002|pp=56–57}} | Cladistics, either generally or in specific applications, has been criticized from its beginnings. Decisions as to whether particular character states are [[Homology (biology)|homologous]], a precondition of their being synapomorphies, have been challenged as involving [[circular reasoning]] and subjective judgements.<ref name="AdraEdgeLieb02">{{Harvnb|Adrain|Edgecombe|Lieberman|2002|pp=56–57}}</ref> | ||
[[Transformed cladistics]] arose in the late 1970s <ref>Platnick, Norman I. "Philosophy and the transformation of cladistics." Systematic Zoology 28, no. 4 (1979): 537–546.</ref> in an attempt to resolve some of these problems by removing a priori assumptions about phylogeny from cladistic analysis, but it has remained unpopular.<ref>Brower, Andrew VZ. "Fifty shades of cladism." Biology & Philosophy 33, no. 1-2 (2018): 8.</ref> | [[Transformed cladistics]] arose in the late 1970s <ref>Platnick, Norman I. "Philosophy and the transformation of cladistics." Systematic Zoology 28, no. 4 (1979): 537–546.</ref> in an attempt to resolve some of these problems by removing a priori assumptions about phylogeny from cladistic analysis, but it has remained unpopular.<ref>Brower, Andrew VZ. "Fifty shades of cladism." Biology & Philosophy 33, no. 1-2 (2018): 8.</ref> | ||
== Issues == | == Issues == | ||
{{More citations needed|1=section|date=May 2026}} | |||
=== Ancestors === | === Ancestors === | ||
The cladistic method does not identify fossil species as actual ancestors of a clade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Krell|first1=Frank-T|last2=Cranston|first2=Peter S.|date=2004|title=Which side of the tree is more basal?: Editorial|journal=Systematic Entomology|language=en|volume=29|issue=3|pages=279–281|doi=10.1111/j.0307-6970.2004.00262.x|s2cid=82371239|doi-access=free|bibcode=2004SysEn..29..279K }}</ref> Instead, fossil taxa are identified as belonging to separate extinct branches. While a fossil species could be the actual ancestor of a clade, there is no way to know that. Therefore, a more conservative hypothesis is that the fossil taxon is related to other fossil and extant taxa, as implied by the pattern of shared apomorphic features.<ref>Patterson, Colin. "Significance of fossils in determining evolutionary relationships." Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 12, no. 1 (1981): 195–223.</ref> | The cladistic method does not identify fossil species as actual ancestors of a clade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Krell|first1=Frank-T|last2=Cranston|first2=Peter S.|date=2004|title=Which side of the tree is more basal?: Editorial|journal=Systematic Entomology|language=en|volume=29|issue=3|pages=279–281|doi=10.1111/j.0307-6970.2004.00262.x|s2cid=82371239|doi-access=free|bibcode=2004SysEn..29..279K }}</ref> Instead, fossil taxa are identified as belonging to separate extinct branches. While a fossil species could be the actual ancestor of a clade, there is no way to know that. Therefore, a more conservative hypothesis is that the fossil taxon is related to other fossil and extant taxa, as implied by the pattern of shared apomorphic features.<ref>Patterson, Colin. "Significance of fossils in determining evolutionary relationships." Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 12, no. 1 (1981): 195–223.</ref> | ||
=== Extinction status === | === Extinction status === | ||
An otherwise extinct group with any extant descendants, is not considered (literally) extinct,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Robert M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gw3vHelHbusC&dq=paraphyly+can+not+be+precisely+extinction&pg=PA133 |title=Causes of Evolution: A Paleontological Perspective |last2=Allmon |first2=Warren D. |date=1990-12-18 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-72824-7 | | An otherwise extinct group with any extant descendants, is not considered (literally) extinct,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Robert M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gw3vHelHbusC&dq=paraphyly+can+not+be+precisely+extinction&pg=PA133 |title=Causes of Evolution: A Paleontological Perspective |last2=Allmon |first2=Warren D. |date=1990-12-18 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-72824-7 |page=133 |language=en}}</ref> and for instance does not have a date of extinction. | ||
=== Hybridization, interbreeding === | === Hybridization, interbreeding === | ||
Due to hybridization, it can be difficult to delineate the two last common ancestors of a given species<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction to Cladistics |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad1.html |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref> Many species are capable of interbreeding for millions of years, during which many branches may have radiated and bred with species from earlier branches of the same grouping. The process of true cladistic bifurcation can thus take extended effort as branchings become more complex.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mehta |first1=Rohan S. |last2=Rosenberg |first2=Noah A. |date=2019-10-01 |title=The probability of reciprocal monophyly of gene lineages in three and four species |journal=Theoretical Population Biology |language=en |volume=129 |pages=133–147 |doi=10.1016/j.tpb.2018.04.004|pmid=29729946 |pmc=6215533 |bibcode=2019TPBio.129..133M }}</ref> In practice, for recent radiations, cladistically guided findings only give a coarse impression of the complexity. A more detailed account will give details about fractions of introgressions between groupings, and even geographic variations thereof. This has been used as an argument for the use of paraphyletic groupings,.<ref name="Hörandl-2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Hörandl |first1=Elvira |last2=Stuessy |first2=Tod F. |date=2010 |title=Paraphyletic groups as natural units of biological classification |journal=Taxon |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=1641–1653 |bibcode=2010Taxon..59.1641H |doi=10.1002/tax.596001 |issn=0040-0262 |jstor=41059863 }}</ref> | |||
=== Horizontal gene transfer === | === Horizontal gene transfer === | ||
Horizontal gene transfer is the mobility of genetic info between different organisms that can have immediate or delayed effects for the reciprocal host.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Emamalipour |first1=Melissa |last2=Seidi |first2=Khaled |last3=Zununi Vahed |first3=Sepideh |last4=Jahanban-Esfahlan |first4=Ali |last5=Jaymand |first5=Mehdi |last6=Majdi |first6=Hasan |last7=Amoozgar |first7=Zohreh |last8=Chitkushev |first8=L. T. |last9=Javaheri |first9=Tahereh |last10=Jahanban-Esfahlan |first10=Rana |last11=Zare |first11=Peyman |date=2020 |title=Horizontal Gene Transfer: From Evolutionary Flexibility to Disease Progression |journal=Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology |volume=8 | | Horizontal gene transfer is the mobility of genetic info between different organisms that can have immediate or delayed effects for the reciprocal host.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Emamalipour |first1=Melissa |last2=Seidi |first2=Khaled |last3=Zununi Vahed |first3=Sepideh |last4=Jahanban-Esfahlan |first4=Ali |last5=Jaymand |first5=Mehdi |last6=Majdi |first6=Hasan |last7=Amoozgar |first7=Zohreh |last8=Chitkushev |first8=L. T. |last9=Javaheri |first9=Tahereh |last10=Jahanban-Esfahlan |first10=Rana |last11=Zare |first11=Peyman |date=2020 |title=Horizontal Gene Transfer: From Evolutionary Flexibility to Disease Progression |journal=Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology |volume=8 |article-number=229 |doi=10.3389/fcell.2020.00229 |pmid=32509768 |pmc=7248198 |issn=2296-634X|doi-access=free }}</ref> There are several processes in nature which can cause [[horizontal gene transfer]]. This does typically not directly interfere with ancestry of the organism, but can complicate the determination of that ancestry. On another level, one can map the horizontal gene transfer processes, by determining the phylogeny of the individual genes using cladistics. | ||
=== Naming stability === | === Naming stability === | ||
If there is unclarity in mutual relationships, there are a lot of possible trees. Assigning names to each possible clade may not be prudent. Furthermore, established names are discarded in cladistics, or alternatively carry connotations which may no longer hold, such as when additional groups are found to have emerged in them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dubois |first=Alain |date=2007-08-01 |title=Naming taxa from cladograms: some confusions, misleading statements, and necessary clarifications |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00151.x |journal=Cladistics |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=390–402 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00151.x |pmid=34905840 |s2cid=59437223 |issn=0748-3007|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Naming changes are the direct result of changes in the recognition of mutual relationships, which often is still in flux, especially for extinct species. Hanging on to older naming and/or connotations | If there is unclarity in mutual relationships, there are a lot of possible trees. Assigning names to each possible clade may not be prudent. Furthermore, established names are discarded in cladistics, or alternatively carry connotations which may no longer hold, such as when additional groups are found to have emerged in them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dubois |first=Alain |date=2007-08-01 |title=Naming taxa from cladograms: some confusions, misleading statements, and necessary clarifications |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00151.x |journal=Cladistics |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=390–402 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00151.x |pmid=34905840 |s2cid=59437223 |issn=0748-3007|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Naming changes are the direct result of changes in the recognition of mutual relationships, which often is still in flux, especially for extinct species. Hanging on to older naming and/or connotations may be counter-productive, as they typically do not reflect actual mutual relationships precisely at all. E.g. Archaea, Asgard archaea, protists, slime molds, worms, invertebrata, fishes, reptilia, monkeys, ''Ardipithecus'', ''Australopithecus'', ''Homo erectus'' all contain ''Homo sapiens'' cladistically, in their ''sensu lato'' meaning. For originally extinct stem groups, ''[[Sensu|sensu lato]]'' generally means generously keeping previously included groups, which then may come to include even living species. A pruned ''[[Sensu|sensu stricto]]'' meaning is often adopted instead, but the group would need to be restricted to a single branch on the stem. Other branches then get their own name and level. This is commensurate to the fact that more senior stem branches are in fact closer related to the resulting group than the more basal stem branches; that those stem branches only may have lived for a short time does not affect that assessment in cladistics. | ||
== In disciplines other than biology == | == In disciplines other than biology == | ||
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[[Comparative mythology]] and [[Folklore|folktale]] use cladistic methods to reconstruct the protoversion of many myths. Mythological phylogenies constructed with mythemes clearly support low horizontal transmissions (borrowings), historical (sometimes Palaeolithic) diffusions and punctuated evolution.<ref>d'Huy 2012a, b; d'Huy 2013a, b, c, d</ref> They also are a powerful way to test hypotheses about cross-cultural relationships among folktales.<ref>Ross and al. 2013</ref><ref>Tehrani 2013</ref> | [[Comparative mythology]] and [[Folklore|folktale]] use cladistic methods to reconstruct the protoversion of many myths. Mythological phylogenies constructed with mythemes clearly support low horizontal transmissions (borrowings), historical (sometimes Palaeolithic) diffusions and punctuated evolution.<ref>d'Huy 2012a, b; d'Huy 2013a, b, c, d</ref> They also are a powerful way to test hypotheses about cross-cultural relationships among folktales.<ref>Ross and al. 2013</ref><ref>Tehrani 2013</ref> | ||
[[Literature]]: Cladistic methods have been used in the classification of the surviving manuscripts of the ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Canterbury Tales Project |url=http://www.canterburytalesproject.org |access-date=2009-07-04 | [[Literature]]: Cladistic methods have been used in the classification of the surviving manuscripts of the ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Canterbury Tales Project |url=http://www.canterburytalesproject.org |access-date=2009-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707103441/http://www.canterburytalesproject.org/ |archive-date=7 July 2009 }}</ref> and the manuscripts of the Sanskrit ''[[Charaka Samhita]]''.<ref name="Maas 2010">{{Harvnb|Maas|2010–2011}}</ref> | ||
[[Historical linguistics]]:<ref>{{Harvnb|Oppenheimer|2006|pp=290–300, 340–56}}</ref> Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of languages using linguistic features. This is similar to the traditional [[comparative method (linguistics)|comparative method]] of historical linguistics, but is more explicit in its use of [[Occam's razor|parsimony]] and allows much faster analysis of large datasets ([[computational phylogenetics]]). | [[Historical linguistics]]:<ref>{{Harvnb|Oppenheimer|2006|pp=290–300, 340–56}}</ref> Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of languages using linguistic features. This is similar to the traditional [[comparative method (linguistics)|comparative method]] of historical linguistics, but is more explicit in its use of [[Occam's razor|parsimony]] and allows much faster analysis of large datasets ([[computational phylogenetics]]). | ||
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* {{Citation |last1=Adrain |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Edgecombe |first2=Gregory D. |last3=Lieberman |first3=Bruce S. |year=2002 |title=Fossils, Phylogeny, and Form: An Analytical Approach |location=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic |isbn=978-0-306-46721-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpnV7NTcnuAC&pg=PA56 |access-date=2012-08-15 |name-list-style=amp }} | * {{Citation |last1=Adrain |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Edgecombe |first2=Gregory D. |last3=Lieberman |first3=Bruce S. |year=2002 |title=Fossils, Phylogeny, and Form: An Analytical Approach |location=New York |publisher=Kluwer Academic |isbn=978-0-306-46721-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpnV7NTcnuAC&pg=PA56 |access-date=2012-08-15 |name-list-style=amp }} | ||
* {{Citation |last1=Baron |first1=C. |last2=Høeg |first2=J.T. |year=2005 |editor-last=Koenemann |editor-first=S. |editor2-last=Jenner |editor2-first=R.A. |contribution=Gould, Scharm and the paleontologocal perspective in evolutionary biology |title=Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships |pages=3–14 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-3498-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LalmQ4346O0C&q=Nielsen,+C.+2001+%22Animal+evolution%22+Chelicerata |access-date=2008-10-15 |name-list-style=amp }} | * {{Citation |last1=Baron |first1=C. |last2=Høeg |first2=J.T. |year=2005 |editor-last=Koenemann |editor-first=S. |editor2-last=Jenner |editor2-first=R.A. |contribution=Gould, Scharm and the paleontologocal perspective in evolutionary biology |title=Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships |pages=3–14 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-3498-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LalmQ4346O0C&q=Nielsen,+C.+2001+%22Animal+evolution%22+Chelicerata |access-date=2008-10-15 |name-list-style=amp }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Benton |first=M. J. |author-link=Michael Benton |year=2000 |title=Stems, nodes, crown clades, and rank-free lists: is Linnaeus dead? |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=633–648 |url=http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Benton/reprints/2000phylocode.pdf |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.2000.tb00055.x |pmid=11117201 |citeseerx=10.1.1.573.4518 |s2cid=17851383 |access-date=2 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809015909/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/benton/reprints/2000phylocode.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2017 | * {{Citation |last=Benton |first=M. J. |author-link=Michael Benton |year=2000 |title=Stems, nodes, crown clades, and rank-free lists: is Linnaeus dead? |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=633–648 |url=http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Benton/reprints/2000phylocode.pdf |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.2000.tb00055.x |pmid=11117201 |bibcode=2000BioRv..75..633B |citeseerx=10.1.1.573.4518 |s2cid=17851383 |access-date=2 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809015909/http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/benton/reprints/2000phylocode.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2017 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Benton |first=M. J.|author-link=Michael Benton |year=2004 |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |edition=3rd |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Science |isbn=978-0-632-05637-8 }} | * {{Citation |last=Benton |first=M. J.|author-link=Michael Benton |year=2004 |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |edition=3rd |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Science |isbn=978-0-632-05637-8 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last1=Brinkman |first1=Fiona S.L. |last2=Leipe |first2=Detlef D. |year=2001 |editor-last=Baxevanis |editor-first=Andreas D. |editor2-last=Ouellette |editor2-first=B.F. Francis |title=Phylogenetic analysis |encyclopedia=Bioinformatics: a practical guide to the analysis of genes and proteins |pages=323–358 |url=http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/Bioinformatics/chapter-14.pdf |access-date=2013-10-19 |edition=2nd |name-list-style=amp | * {{Citation |last1=Brinkman |first1=Fiona S.L. |last2=Leipe |first2=Detlef D. |year=2001 |editor-last=Baxevanis |editor-first=Andreas D. |editor2-last=Ouellette |editor2-first=B.F. Francis |title=Phylogenetic analysis |encyclopedia=Bioinformatics: a practical guide to the analysis of genes and proteins |pages=323–358 |url=http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/Bioinformatics/chapter-14.pdf |access-date=2013-10-19 |edition=2nd |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020085621/http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/Bioinformatics/chapter-14.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013 }} | ||
* {{Citation | last1=Cain | first1=A. J. |last2=Harrison | first2 = G. A. |year=1960| title=Phyletic weighting |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London | volume=35 | pages=1–31 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1960.tb05828.x }} | * {{Citation | last1=Cain | first1=A. J. |last2=Harrison | first2 = G. A. |year=1960| title=Phyletic weighting |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London | volume=35 | issue=1 | pages=1–31 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1960.tb05828.x | bibcode=1960PZSL..135....1C }} | ||
* {{Citation | last=Cuénot | first=Lucien | author-link=Lucien Cuénot | year=1940 | title=Remarques sur un essai d'arbre généalogique du règne animal | journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris | volume=210 | pages=23–27 | postscript=.}} Available free online at [http://gallica.bnf.fr Gallica] (No direct URL). This is the paper credited by {{Harvnb|Hennig|1979}} for the first use of the term 'clade'. | * {{Citation | last=Cuénot | first=Lucien | author-link=Lucien Cuénot | year=1940 | title=Remarques sur un essai d'arbre généalogique du règne animal | journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris | volume=210 | pages=23–27 | postscript=.}} Available free online at [http://gallica.bnf.fr Gallica] (No direct URL). This is the paper credited by {{Harvnb|Hennig|1979}} for the first use of the term 'clade'. | ||
* {{Citation | last=Dupuis | first=Claude | year=1984 | title=Willi Hennig's impact on taxonomic thought | journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=15 |pages=1–24 |issn=0066-4162 | postscript=. | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.15.1.1}} | * {{Citation | last=Dupuis | first=Claude | year=1984 | title=Willi Hennig's impact on taxonomic thought | journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=15 |pages=1–24 |issn=0066-4162 | postscript=. | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.15.1.1}} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1977 |contribution=On the phenetic approach to vertebrate classification |editor-last=Hecht |editor-first=M. K. |editor2-last=Goody |editor2-first=P. C.| editor3-last=Hecht |editor3-first=B. M.| title=Major Patterns in Vertebrate Evolution |pages=823–850 |publisher=Plenum, New York}} | * {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1977 |contribution=On the phenetic approach to vertebrate classification |editor-last=Hecht |editor-first=M. K. |editor2-last=Goody |editor2-first=P. C.| editor3-last=Hecht |editor3-first=B. M.| title=Major Patterns in Vertebrate Evolution |pages=823–850 |publisher=Plenum, New York}} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1979a |title=On the naturalness of phylogenetic classification |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=28 |pages=200–214 |doi=10.2307/2412523 |issue=2|jstor=2412523 }} | * {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1979a |title=On the naturalness of phylogenetic classification |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=28 |pages=200–214 |doi=10.2307/2412523 |issue=2|jstor=2412523 |bibcode=1979SysZ...28..200F }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1979b |title=The information content of the phylogenetic system |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=28 |pages=483–519 |doi=10.2307/2412562 |issue=4|jstor=2412562 }} | * {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1979b |title=The information content of the phylogenetic system |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=28 |pages=483–519 |doi=10.2307/2412562 |issue=4|jstor=2412562 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1980 |title=The efficient diagnoses of the phylogenetic system |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=29 |pages=386–401 |doi=10.2307/2992344 |issue=4|jstor=2992344 }} | * {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1980 |title=The efficient diagnoses of the phylogenetic system |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=29 |pages=386–401 |doi=10.2307/2992344 |issue=4|jstor=2992344 |bibcode=1980SysZ...29..386F }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1983 |contribution=The logical basis of phylogenetic analysis |editor-last=Platnick |editor-first=Norman I. |editor2-last=Funk |editor2-first=Vicki A.| title=Advances in Cladistics, vol. 2 |pages=7–36 |publisher=Columbia University Press, New York}} | * {{Citation |last=Farris |first=James S. |year = 1983 |contribution=The logical basis of phylogenetic analysis |editor-last=Platnick |editor-first=Norman I. |editor2-last=Funk |editor2-first=Vicki A.| title=Advances in Cladistics, vol. 2 |pages=7–36 |publisher=Columbia University Press, New York}} | ||
* {{Citation |last1=Fraix-Burnet |first1=D. |last2=Choler |first2=P. |last3=Douzery |first3=E.J.P. |last4=Verhamme |first4=A. |year=2006 |title=Astrocladistics: A Phylogenetic Analysis of Galaxy Evolution II. Formation and Diversification of Galaxies |journal=Journal of Classification|volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=57–78 |doi=10.1007/s00357-006-0004-4 |arxiv = astro-ph/0602580 |bibcode = 2006JClas..23...57F |s2cid=2537194 }} | * {{Citation |last1=Fraix-Burnet |first1=D. |last2=Choler |first2=P. |last3=Douzery |first3=E.J.P. |last4=Verhamme |first4=A. |year=2006 |title=Astrocladistics: A Phylogenetic Analysis of Galaxy Evolution II. Formation and Diversification of Galaxies |journal=Journal of Classification|volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=57–78 |doi=10.1007/s00357-006-0004-4 |arxiv = astro-ph/0602580 |bibcode = 2006JClas..23...57F |s2cid=2537194 }} | ||
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* {{Citation |last=Maas |first=Philipp |editor-last=Jürgen |editor-first=Hanneder |editor2-last=Maas |editor2-first=Philipp |title=Computer Aided Stemmatics – The Case of Fifty-Two Text Versions of Carakasasaṃhitā Vimānasthāna 8.67-157 |pages=63–120 |date=2010–2011 |doi=10.1553/wzks2009-2010s63 |journal=Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens |volume=52–53}} | * {{Citation |last=Maas |first=Philipp |editor-last=Jürgen |editor-first=Hanneder |editor2-last=Maas |editor2-first=Philipp |title=Computer Aided Stemmatics – The Case of Fifty-Two Text Versions of Carakasasaṃhitā Vimānasthāna 8.67-157 |pages=63–120 |date=2010–2011 |doi=10.1553/wzks2009-2010s63 |journal=Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens |volume=52–53}} | ||
* {{Citation |year=2005 |editor-last=Mace |editor-first=Ruth |editor2-last=Clare |editor2-first=Clare J. |editor3-last=Shennan |editor3-first=Stephen |title=The Evolution of Cultural Diversity: A Phylogenetic Approach |location=Portland |publisher=Cavendish Press |isbn=978-1-84472-099-6 }} | * {{Citation |year=2005 |editor-last=Mace |editor-first=Ruth |editor2-last=Clare |editor2-first=Clare J. |editor3-last=Shennan |editor3-first=Stephen |title=The Evolution of Cultural Diversity: A Phylogenetic Approach |location=Portland |publisher=Cavendish Press |isbn=978-1-84472-099-6 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |year=1974 |title=Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification? |journal=Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung |volume=12 |pages=94–128 |url= | * {{Citation |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |year=1974 |title=Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification? |journal=Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung |volume=12 |pages=94–128 |url=https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/jdv55/teaching/systematics/mayr%2074%20-%20cladistic%20analysis%20or%20cladistic%20classification.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/jdv55/teaching/systematics/mayr%2074%20-%20cladistic%20analysis%20or%20cladistic%20classification.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0469.1974.tb00160.x }} | ||
* {{Citation | last=Mayr | first=Ernst | author-link=Ernst Mayr | title=Evolution and the diversity of life (Selected essays) | year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-27105-0 }} Reissued 1997 in paperback. Includes a reprint of Mayr's 1974 anti-cladistics paper at pp. 433–476, "Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification." This is the paper to which {{harvnb|Hennig|1975}} is a response. | * {{Citation | last=Mayr | first=Ernst | author-link=Ernst Mayr | title=Evolution and the diversity of life (Selected essays) | year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-27105-0 }} Reissued 1997 in paperback. Includes a reprint of Mayr's 1974 anti-cladistics paper at pp. 433–476, "Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification." This is the paper to which {{harvnb|Hennig|1975}} is a response. | ||
* {{Citation|last=Mayr|first=Ernst| author-link=Ernst Mayr |year=1978|title=Origin and history of some terms in systematic and evolutionary biology|journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=27|pages=83–88|doi=10.2307/2412818|issue=1|jstor=2412818|postscript=.}} | * {{Citation|last=Mayr|first=Ernst| author-link=Ernst Mayr |year=1978|title=Origin and history of some terms in systematic and evolutionary biology|journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=27|pages=83–88|doi=10.2307/2412818|issue=1|jstor=2412818|postscript=.}} | ||
| Line 223: | Line 223: | ||
* {{Citation | last=Patterson | first=Colin | year=1982 | contribution=Morphological characters and homology | editor-last=Joysey |editor-first=Kenneth A|editor2-first=A. E. |editor2-last=Friday | title=Problems in Phylogenetic Reconstruction | publisher=Academic Press | location=London |series=Systematics Association Special Volume 21| isbn=978-0-12-391250-3}}. | * {{Citation | last=Patterson | first=Colin | year=1982 | contribution=Morphological characters and homology | editor-last=Joysey |editor-first=Kenneth A|editor2-first=A. E. |editor2-last=Friday | title=Problems in Phylogenetic Reconstruction | publisher=Academic Press | location=London |series=Systematics Association Special Volume 21| isbn=978-0-12-391250-3}}. | ||
* {{Citation |last=Patterson |first=Colin |year=1988 |title=Homology in classical and molecular biology |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=603–625 |pmid=3065587 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040523 |doi-access=free }} | * {{Citation |last=Patterson |first=Colin |year=1988 |title=Homology in classical and molecular biology |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=603–625 |pmid=3065587 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040523 |doi-access=free }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=de Pinna |first=M.G.G |year=1991 |title=Concepts and tests of homology in the cladistic paradigm |journal=Cladistics |volume=7 |pages=367–394 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1991.tb00045.x |issue=4 |url=http://www.ib.usp.br/hennig/depinna1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.487.2259 |s2cid=3551391 |access-date=24 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722004034/http://www.ib.usp.br/hennig/depinna1991.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 | * {{Citation |last=de Pinna |first=M.G.G |year=1991 |title=Concepts and tests of homology in the cladistic paradigm |journal=Cladistics |volume=7 |pages=367–394 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1991.tb00045.x |issue=4 |url=http://www.ib.usp.br/hennig/depinna1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.487.2259 |s2cid=3551391 |access-date=24 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722004034/http://www.ib.usp.br/hennig/depinna1991.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last1=de Queiroz |first1=K. |last2=Gauthier |first2=J. |year=1992 |title=Phylogenetic taxonomy |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=23 |pages=449–480 |url=http://www.faculty.biol.ttu.edu/strauss/Phylogenetics/Readings/deQueirozGauthier1992.pdf |name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.23.1.449 |access-date=28 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320020833/http://www.faculty.biol.ttu.edu/strauss/Phylogenetics/Readings/deQueirozGauthier1992.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 | * {{Citation |last1=de Queiroz |first1=K. |last2=Gauthier |first2=J. |year=1992 |title=Phylogenetic taxonomy |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=23 |pages=449–480 |url=http://www.faculty.biol.ttu.edu/strauss/Phylogenetics/Readings/deQueirozGauthier1992.pdf |name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.23.1.449 |access-date=28 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320020833/http://www.faculty.biol.ttu.edu/strauss/Phylogenetics/Readings/deQueirozGauthier1992.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last1=Robinson |first1=Peter M.W. |last2=O'Hara |first2=Robert J. |year=1996 |title=Cladistic analysis of an Old Norse manuscript tradition |journal=Research in Humanities Computing |volume=4 |pages=115–137 |url=http://rjohara.net/cv/1996-rhc |access-date=2010-12-13 |name-list-style=amp }} | * {{Citation |last1=Robinson |first1=Peter M.W. |last2=O'Hara |first2=Robert J. |year=1996 |title=Cladistic analysis of an Old Norse manuscript tradition |journal=Research in Humanities Computing |volume=4 |pages=115–137 |url=http://rjohara.net/cv/1996-rhc |access-date=2010-12-13 |name-list-style=amp }} | ||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ross | first1 = Robert M. | last2 = Greenhill | first2 = Simon J. | last3 = Atkinson | first3 = Quentin D. | year = 2013 | title = Population structure and cultural geography of a folktale in Europe | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 280 | issue = 1756 | | * {{cite journal | last1 = Ross | first1 = Robert M. | last2 = Greenhill | first2 = Simon J. | last3 = Atkinson | first3 = Quentin D. | year = 2013 | title = Population structure and cultural geography of a folktale in Europe | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 280 | issue = 1756 | article-number = 20123065 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.3065| pmid = 23390109 | pmc = 3574383 | bibcode = 2013PBioS.28023065R }} | ||
* {{Citation |last1=Schuh |first1=Randall T. |last2=Brower |first2=Andrew V.Z. |year=2009 |title=Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications |edition=2nd |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-4799-0 |name-list-style=amp }} | * {{Citation |last1=Schuh |first1=Randall T. |last2=Brower |first2=Andrew V.Z. |year=2009 |title=Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications |edition=2nd |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-4799-0 |name-list-style=amp }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Taylor |first=Mike |year=2003 |title=What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean? |url=http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |access-date=2010-12-13 }} | * {{Citation |last=Taylor |first=Mike |year=2003 |title=What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean? |url=http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |access-date=2010-12-13 }} | ||
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* {{Citation |last=Weygoldt |first=P. |date=February 1998 |title=Evolution and systematics of the Chelicerata |journal=Experimental and Applied Acarology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1023/A:1006037525704 |s2cid=35595726 }} | * {{Citation |last=Weygoldt |first=P. |date=February 1998 |title=Evolution and systematics of the Chelicerata |journal=Experimental and Applied Acarology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=63–79 |doi=10.1023/A:1006037525704 |s2cid=35595726 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Wheeler |first=Quentin |year=2000 |title=Species Concepts and Phylogenetic Theory: A Debate |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10143-1 }} | * {{Citation |last=Wheeler |first=Quentin |year=2000 |title=Species Concepts and Phylogenetic Theory: A Debate |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10143-1 }} | ||
* {{Citation |last1=Wiley |first1=E.O. |last2=Siegel-Causey |first2=D. |last3=Brooks |first3=D.R. |last4=Funk |first4=V.A. |year=1991 |contribution=Chapter 1 Introduction, terms and concepts |title=The Compleat Cladist: A Primer of Phylogenetic Procedures |publisher=The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History |isbn=978-0-89338-035-9 |url=http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf |access-date=2010-12-13 |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=3 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203030019/http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf | * {{Citation |last1=Wiley |first1=E.O. |last2=Siegel-Causey |first2=D. |last3=Brooks |first3=D.R. |last4=Funk |first4=V.A. |year=1991 |contribution=Chapter 1 Introduction, terms and concepts |title=The Compleat Cladist: A Primer of Phylogenetic Procedures |publisher=The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History |isbn=978-0-89338-035-9 |url=http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf |access-date=2010-12-13 |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=3 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203030019/http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf }} | ||
* {{Citation |last=Williams |first=P.A. |year=1992 |title=Confusion in cladism |journal=Synthese |volume=01 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–152|doi=10.1007/BF00484973 |s2cid=46974048 }} | * {{Citation |last=Williams |first=P.A. |year=1992 |title=Confusion in cladism |journal=Synthese |volume=01 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–152|doi=10.1007/BF00484973 |s2cid=46974048 }} | ||
{{refend}} | {{refend}} | ||
| Line 245: | Line 245: | ||
* {{cite web|first1=Allen G.|last1=Collins|first2=Rob|last2=Guralnick|first3=Dave|last3=Smith|title=Journey into Phylogenetic Systematics|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad4.html|date=1994–2005|publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology|access-date=2010-01-21}} | * {{cite web|first1=Allen G.|last1=Collins|first2=Rob|last2=Guralnick|first3=Dave|last3=Smith|title=Journey into Phylogenetic Systematics|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad4.html|date=1994–2005|publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology|access-date=2010-01-21}} | ||
* {{cite web|first=Joe|last=Felsenstein|title=Phylogeny Programs|location=Seattle|publisher=University of Washington|access-date=2010-01-21|url=http://evolution.gs.washington.edu/phylip/software.html}} | * {{cite web|first=Joe|last=Felsenstein|title=Phylogeny Programs|location=Seattle|publisher=University of Washington|access-date=2010-01-21|url=http://evolution.gs.washington.edu/phylip/software.html}} | ||
* {{cite web|first=Dennis|last=O'Neil|date=1998–2008|title=Classification of Living Things|location=San Marcos CA|publisher=Palomar College|access-date=2010-01-21|url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/animal/default.htm|archive-date=11 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111134458/http://anthro.palomar.edu/animal/default.htm | * {{cite web|first=Dennis|last=O'Neil|date=1998–2008|title=Classification of Living Things|location=San Marcos CA|publisher=Palomar College|access-date=2010-01-21|url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/animal/default.htm|archive-date=11 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111134458/http://anthro.palomar.edu/animal/default.htm}} | ||
* {{cite web|first1=Peter|last1=Robinson|first2=Robert J.|last2=O'Hara|title=Report on the Textual Criticism Challenge 1991|year=1992|publisher=rjohara.net|url=http://rjohara.net/darwin/files/bmcr|access-date=2010-01-21}} | * {{cite web|first1=Peter|last1=Robinson|first2=Robert J.|last2=O'Hara|title=Report on the Textual Criticism Challenge 1991|year=1992|publisher=rjohara.net|url=http://rjohara.net/darwin/files/bmcr|access-date=2010-01-21}} | ||
* {{cite web|first=Douglas|last=Theobald|date=1999–2004|title=Phylogenetics Primer|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/phylo.html|publisher=The TalkOrigins Archive|access-date=2010-01-21}} | * {{cite web|first=Douglas|last=Theobald|date=1999–2004|title=Phylogenetics Primer|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/phylo.html|publisher=The TalkOrigins Archive|access-date=2010-01-21}} | ||