Reformed Christianity: Difference between revisions

{{Redirect|Reformed church|Reformed churches originating in continental Europe|Continental Reformed Protestantism}}

'''Reformed Christianity''', also called '''Calvinism''',{{Efn|The name ''Calvinism'' derives from the French reformer [[John Calvin]]. Reformed Christianity can also be referred to as '''Reformed Protestantism''', the '''Reformed tradition''', or simply '''Reformed'''.{{sfn|Muller|2004|p=130}}}} is a major branch of [[Protestantism]] that began during the 16th-century [[Protestant Reformation]]. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the [[Continental Reformed Protestantism|Continental Reformed]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], and [[Congregationalism|Congregational]] traditions, as well as parts of the [[Reformed Anglican Church|Anglican]] (known as "Episcopal" in some regions), [[Reformed Baptists|Baptist]] and [[Waldensians|Waldensian]] traditions, in addition to a minority of persons belonging to the [[Calvinistic Methodist|Methodist]] faith (who are known as Calvinistic Methodists).

Reformed theology emphasizes the [[Biblical authority|authority of the Bible]] and the [[Sovereignty of God in Christianity|sovereignty of God]], as well as [[covenant theology]], a framework for understanding the Bible based on God's covenants with people. Reformed churches emphasize simplicity in worship. Several forms of [[ecclesiastical polity]] are exercised by Reformed churches, including [[presbyterian polity|presbyterian]], [[Congregational polity|congregational]], and some [[episcopal polity|episcopal]]. Articulated by [[John Calvin]], the Reformed faith holds to a [[Lord's Supper in Reformed theology|spiritual (pneumatic) presence]] of Christ in the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]].

Emerging in the 16th century, the Reformed tradition developed over several generations, especially in [[Switzerland]], [[Scotland]] and the [[Netherlands]]. In the 17th century, [[Jacobus Arminius]] and the [[Remonstrants]] were expelled from the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] over disputes regarding [[predestination]] and [[salvation in Christianity|salvation]], and from that time [[Arminianism|Arminians]] are usually considered to be a distinct tradition from the Reformed. This dispute produced the [[Canons of Dort]], the basis for the "doctrines of grace" also known as the [[Five Points of Calvinism|"five points" of Calvinism]].

The term Reformed Christianity is derived from the denomination's self designation of "Reformed Church", beginning in Switzerland and Germany, shortly thereafter followed by the Dutch Republic. ''Calvinism'' is the name derived from its most famous leader, [[John Calvin]] (born Jehan Cauvin), influential Reformation-era theologian from [[Geneva]], Switzerland. The term was first used by opposing [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] in the 1550s. Calvin did not approve of the use of this term,<ref name="Cottret2003">{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Cottret |title=Calvin, A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn-xAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA239 |date=22 May 2003 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-53035-6 |page=239 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> and religious scholars have argued its use is misleading, inaccurate, unhelpful,{{sfn|Allen|2010|pp=3–4}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hägglund|first=Bengt|title=Teologins Historia|language=de|trans-title=History of Theology|others=Translated by Gene J. Lund|edition=Fourth Revised |year=2007 |location=Saint Louis, U.S.|publisher=Concordia Publishing House}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Was Calvin a Calvinist? Or, Did Calvin (or Anyone Else in the Early Modern Era) Plant the 'TULIP'? |last=Muller |first=Richard A. |author-link=Richard A. Muller |year=2009 |url=https://agrammatos.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/was-calvin-a-calvinist-12-26-09.pdf|via=Agrammatos}}. An essay based on the lecture:

The definitions and boundaries of the terms ''Reformed Christianity'' and ''Calvinism'' are contested by scholars. As a historical movement, Reformed Christianity began during the [[Reformation]] with [[Huldrych Zwingli]] in [[Zürich]], Switzerland. Following the failure of the [[Marburg Colloquy]] between Zwingli's followers and those of [[Martin Luther]] in 1529 to mediate disputes regarding the [[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist|real presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper]], Zwingli's followers were defined by their opposition to Lutherans (while Lutherans affirmed a corporeal presence of Christ in the Eucharist through a [[sacramental union]], the Reformed came to hold a real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist as propunded by Calvin and Bullinger).{{sfn|MacCulloch|2005|p=174}} They also opposed [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] radicals{{sfn|MacCulloch|2005|p=184}} thus remaining within the [[Magisterial Reformation]].<ref name="Voorst2014">{{cite book |last1=Voorst |first1=Robert E. Van |title=Readings in Christianity |date=1 January 2014 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-14304-3 |page=164 |language=en |quote=The Magisterial reformation denotes the Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican churches; this is sometimes labeled the mainstream of the Reformation. ''Magisterial'' means that secular authorities ("magistrates") had a role in the life of the church; church and state were closely tied.}}</ref><ref name= "mcgrath159">{{citation|last=McGrath|first=Alister|title=Historical Theology|year=1998|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|location=Oxford|isbn=0-63120843-7|authorlink=Alister McGrath|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaltheolo0000mcgr/page/159 159]|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaltheolo0000mcgr/page/159}}</ref> During the 17th-century [[History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate|Arminian Controversy]], followers of [[Jacobus Arminius]] were forcibly removed from the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] for their views regarding [[predestination]] and [[salvation in Christianity|salvation]], and thenceforth [[Arminians]] would be considered outside the pale of Reformed orthodoxy,{{sfn|MacCulloch|2005|p=378}} though some use the term ''Reformed'' to include Arminians while using the term ''Calvinist'' to exclude Arminians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reformed Churches |work=[[Christian Cyclopedia]] |url=http://cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=r&word=REFORMEDCHURCHES |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528162251/http://cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=r&word=REFORMEDCHURCHES |archive-date= May 28, 2023 }}</ref>

Reformed Christianity has historically included [[Anglicanism]], the branch of Christianity originating in the [[Church of England]].<ref name="González1987">{{cite book |last1=González |first1=Justo L. |title=A History of Christian Thought: From the Protestant Reformation to the twentieth century |date=1987 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-0-687-17184-2 |language=en|quote=It is clear that, in rejecting Roman Catholic doctrine on this point, Cranmer has also rejected Luther's views and adopted Calvin's position. The sacrament is not merely a symbol of what takes place in the heart, but neither is it the physical eating of the body of Christ. This must be so, because the body of Christ is in heaven and therefore our participation in it can only be spiritual. Only the believers are the true partakers of the body and blood of Christ, for the unbelievers eat and drink no more than bread and wine—and condemnation upon themselves, for the profanation of the Lord's Table. These views are reflected in the Thirty-nine articles, of which the twenty-eighth says that "the Body of the Christ is given, taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after an heavenly and spiritual manner. The next article says of the wicked that "in no wise are they partakers of Christ," although "to their condemnation [they] do eat and drink the sign or Sacrament of so great a thing." This marked Calvinistic influence would prove very significant for the history of Christianity in England during the seventeenth century}}</ref> The Anglican confessions are considered Reformed Protestant<ref>{{Cite web |last=Robinson |first=Peter D. |date=2020-02-14 |title=Is Anglicanism Reformed? |url=https://northamanglican.com/is-anglicanism-reformed/ |access-date=2024-04-13 |website=The North American Anglican |language=en-US |quote=If one looks at the two main confessional documents of the English Reformation, the (39) Articles of Religion, and the Book of Common Prayer, a series of propositions emerge that definitely put the Church of England into that strand of the Augustinian Theological tradition which we call 'Protestantism' and furthermore, to put it into the subset known as 'Reformed.'&thinsp;}}</ref> and leaders of the [[English Reformation|Protestant Reformation in England]], such as the guiding [[Protestant Reformers|Reformer]] who shaped Anglican theology [[Thomas Cranmer]], were influenced by and counted among Reformed (Calvinist) theologians.<ref name="González1987"/><ref name="Elwell2001">{{cite book |last1=Elwell |first1=Walter A. |title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology |date=May 2001 |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-0-8010-2075-9 |page=990 |language=en|quote=For Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger (''Second Helvetic Confession'' 21.10), John Calvin, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and most of the Reformed tradition (e.g. ''Westminster Confession'' 29.7) as well as the Anglican ''Thirty-Nine Articles'' (28), Christ is "spiritually present" in the sacrament by the ministry of the Holy Spirit and is received by faith. They affirm Christ's "true" and thus real presence, even "substantial" presence (Calvin, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' [1559] 4.17.19), distinguishing this from physical presence.}}</ref><ref name="Samuel2020">{{cite book |last1=Samuel |first1=Chimela Meehoma |title=Treasures of the Anglican Witness: A Collection of Essays |date=28 April 2020 |publisher=Partridge Publishing |isbn=978-1-5437-5784-2 |language=en |quote=In addition to his emphasis on Bible reading and the introduction to the ''Book of Common Prayer'', other media through which Cranmer sought to catechize the English people were the introduction of the First Book of Homilies and the 39 Articles of Religion. Together with the ''Book of Common Prayer'' and the Forty-Two Articles (which were later reduced to thirty-nine), the Book of Homilies stands as one of the essential texts of the Edwardian Reformation, and they all helped to define the shape of Anglicanism then, and in the subsequent centuries. More so, the Articles of Religion, whose primary shape and content were given by Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley in 1553 (and whose final official form was ratified by Convocation, the Queen, and Parliament in 1571), provided a more precise interpretation of Christian doctrine to the English people. According to John H. Rodgers, they "constitute the formal statements of the accepted, common teaching put forth by the Church of England as a result of the Reformation."}}</ref> As with [[Lutheranism]], the Church of England retained elements of [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] such as [[bishops]] and [[vestments]], thus sometimes being called "but halfly Reformed" or a middle way between Lutheranism and Reformed Christianity, being closer liturgically to the former and theologically aligned with the latter.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Haigh |first1=Christopher |title=The English Reformations and the Making of the Anglican Church |url=https://www.perthcathedral.org/images/stories/LectureSeries_no14.pdf |access-date=6 April 2024 |date=2006 |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406202003/https://www.perthcathedral.org/images/stories/LectureSeries_no14.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="AEH2003">{{cite book|title=Anglican and Episcopal History|year=2003|publisher=Historical Society of the Episcopal Church|language=en|page=15|quote=William Monter describing the Church of England as "a unique style of Protestantism, a via media between the Reformed and Lutheran traditions." MacCulloch has described Cranmer as seeking a middle way between Zurich and Wittenberg but elsewhere remarks that the Church of England was "nearer Zurich and Geneva than Wittenberg.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Robinson |first1=Peter |title=The Reformed Face of Anglicanism |url=http://theoldhighchurchman.blogspot.com/2012/08/the-reformed-face-of-anglicanism.html |publisher=The Old High Churchman |access-date=3 February 2020 |language=en |date=2 August 2012|quote=Cranmer's personal journey of faith left its mark on the Church of England in the form of a Liturgy that remains to this day more closely allied to Lutheran practice, but that liturgy is couple to a doctrinal stance that is broadly, but decidedly Reformed.}}</ref> Beginning in the 17th century, Anglicanism broadened to the extent that Reformed theology is no longer the sole dominant theology of Anglicanism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hampton |first1=Stephen |title=Anti-Arminians: The Anglican Reformed Tradition from Charles II to George I |date=29 May 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-155985-3 |pages=4 |language=en}}</ref>

Although much of Calvin's work was in [[Geneva]], his publications spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of Europe. In Switzerland, some cantons are still Reformed, and some are Catholic. Calvinism became the dominant doctrine within the [[Church of Scotland]] (Presbyterian Church), the [[Dutch Republic]] and parts of Germany, especially those adjacent to the Netherlands in the [[Palatinate (region)|Palatinate]], [[Kassel]], and [[Lippe (district)|Lippe]], spread by [[Caspar Olevian]] and [[Zacharias Ursinus]] among others. Protected by the local nobility, Calvinism became a significant religion in eastern Hungary and Hungarian-speaking areas of [[Transylvania]]. {{as of|2007}}, there are about 3.5 million Hungarian Reformed people worldwide.<ref name="The Reformed Church">{{cite web |title=The Reformed Church |url=http://www.bocskaihall.org.au/reformed-church.htm |publisher=Hungarian Reformed Church of Australia |access-date=8 February 2014  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222135525/http://www.bocskaihall.org.au/reformed-church.htm |archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref>

Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe salvation from punishment for sin is to be given to all those who have [[Faith in Christianity|faith]] in Christ.{{sfn|Allen|2010|pp=77–78}} Faith is not purely intellectual, but involves trust in God's promise to save.{{sfn|McKim|2001|p=114}} Protestants do not hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but that [[faith alone]] is sufficient.{{sfn|Allen|2010|pp=77–78}} However, this faith in the Lord Jesus is understood as one that effects obedience. In a commentary on Ezekiel 18, Calvin stated:  "faith cannot justify when it is without works, because it is dead, and a mere fiction...Thus faith can be no more separated from works than the sun from his heat."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Christ |first1=T. Michael |title=A New Creation in Christ: Walter Marshall's Theology of Sanctification |date=8 August 2024 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=979-8-3852-0257-7 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_gkZEQAAQBAJ&dq=Therefore+faith+cannot+justify+when+it+is+without+works,+because+it+is+dead,+and+a+mere+fiction.+He+who+is+born+of+God+is+just,+as+John+says+(1+John+v.+18).+Thus+faith+can+be+no+more+separated+from+works+than+the+sun+from+his+heat:&pg=PR13 |access-date=1 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

Much attention surrounding Calvinism focuses on the "Five Points of Calvinism" (also called the ''doctrines of grace'').<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawson |first=Steven |date=March 18, 2019 |title=TULIP and The Doctrines of Grace |url=https://www.ligonier.org/blog/tulip-and-doctrines-grace/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121090553/https://www.ligonier.org/blog/tulip-and-doctrines-grace/ |archive-date=January 21, 2021 |access-date=August 5, 2021 |website=Ligonier Ministries |quote=In reality, these five doctrines of grace form one comprehensive body of truth concerning salvation.}}</ref> The five points have been summarized under the [[acrostic]] TULIP.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sproul |first=R. C. |title=What Is Reformed Theology?: Understanding the Basics |publisher=Baker Books |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-8010-1846-6 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan, U.S. |page=32 |language=en-us}}</ref> The five points are popularly said to summarize the [[Canons of Dort]]; however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in the language of total depravity and limited atonement.<ref name="muller 2012">{{cite book |last=Muller |first=Richard A. |title=Calvin and the Reformed Tradition |publisher=Baker Academic |date=2012 |edition=Ebook |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan (US) |pages=50–51 |language=en-us |author-link=Richard A. Muller (theologian)}}

On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and advocated [[a cappella]] [[exclusive psalmody]] in worship,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://reformedonline.com/view/reformedonline/music.htm |access-date=16 November 2007 |year=1998 |title=Musical Instruments in the Public Worship of God |first=Brian |last=Schwertley |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120010940/http://reformedonline.com/view/reformedonline/music.htm }}</ref> though Calvin himself allowed other scriptural songs as well as psalms,<ref name="Barber" /> and this practice typified [[Presbyterian worship]] and the worship of other Reformed churches for some time. The original Lord's Day service designed by John Calvin was a highly liturgical service with the Creed, Alms, Confession and Absolution, the Lord's supper, Doxologies, prayers, Psalms being sung, the Lords prayer being sung, and Benedictions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Maxwell |first=William D. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157208 |title=An Outline of Christian Worship: Its Development and Forms |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1936 |location=London |language=en-uk}}</ref>

The Reformed tradition is historically represented by the [[Continental Reformed|Continental]], [[Presbyterian]], [[Evangelical Anglican|Reformed Anglican]], [[Congregationalist church|Congregationalist]], and [[Reformed Baptist]] denominational families.

{{Further|Evangelical Anglicanism}}

Though Anglicanism today is often described as a separate branch from the Reformed, historic Anglicanism is a part of the wider Reformed tradition. The foundational documents of the Anglican church "express a theology in keeping with the Reformed theology of the Swiss and South German Reformation."<ref name="Jensen2015">{{cite web |last1=Jensen |first1=Michael P. |title=9 Things You Should Really Know About Anglicanism |url=https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/nine-things-you-should-really-know-about-anglicanism/ |publisher=[[The Gospel Coalition]] |access-date=3 February 2020 |language=en |date=7 January 2015}}</ref> The Most Rev. Peter Robinson, [[presiding bishop]] of the [[United Episcopal Church of North America]], writes:<ref name="Robinson2012"/>

=== Baptist ===

Reformed or Calvinistic [[Baptist]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heritage Baptist Church – A Brief History of Reformed Baptists |url=https://www.reformedbaptist.org/who-we-are/a-brief-history-of-reformed-baptists |access-date=2024-03-26 |website=www.reformedbaptist.org |language=en-US}}</ref> unlike other Reformed groups, exclusively practice [[believer's baptism]]. They observe a more congregational polity, taken from the Congregationalists. Their primary confession is the [[1689 Baptist Confession of Faith|Second London Confession of Faith]] of 1689, a revision of the [[Savoy Declaration]] from the Congregationalists, and the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]], from the Presbyterians, but other Baptist confessions like the [[1644 Baptist Confession of Faith|First London Confession]] are also used.<ref name="Hicks2017">{{cite web |last1=Hicks |first1=Tom |date=30 March 2017 |title=What is a Reformed Baptist? |url=https://founders.org/2017/03/30/what-is-a-reformed-baptist/ |access-date=3 February 2020 |publisher=Founders Ministries |language=en}}</ref> Not all Baptists are Particular Baptists, and, in fact, the Baptist tradition didn't start Particular Baptist, but [[General Baptist]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}} Many Reformed Baptists accept Reformed theology, especially [[Five Points of Calvinism|soteriology]], and a [[covenantal theology]], named the [[Baptist covenant theology]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masonheimer |first1=Phylicia |title=Every Woman a Theologian |date=February 2, 2023 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=978-0-7852-9222-7 |page=98}}</ref>

Hyper-Calvinism is the belief that emphasizes God's sovereignty in election and salvation to such an extent that it rejects the responsibility of all people to "[[Repentance in Christianity|repent]] and believe" the gospel. This belief system became prominent among some of the early English [[Strict Baptist|Particular Baptists]] in the 18th century. Historically, it has been associated with theologians such as [[John Gill (theologian)|John Gill]] and [[Joseph Hussey]] who contributed to the development of its distinct views.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-02-26 |title=HyperCal1 |url=http://www.anglicanbooksrevitalized.us/Peter_Toons_Books_Online/History/hypercal1.htm |access-date=2025-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226001003/http://www.anglicanbooksrevitalized.us/Peter_Toons_Books_Online/History/hypercal1.htm |archive-date=26 February 2009 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Allen |first=Brummel |date=2025-04-03 |title=If God is Sovereign, Is Evangelism Necessary and Urgent? |url=https://www.prca.org/resources/publications/articles/item/4128-god-sovereign-evangelism-necessary-urgent |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=www.prca.org |language=en-gb}}</ref> This variant of Reformed Theology was opposed by ministers such as [[Andrew Fuller]] and missionaries such as [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]] who argued against the Hyper-Calvinistic mindset that "if God wants to save the heathen, He will do it without your help or mine."<ref>{{Cite web |title=8. Andrew Fuller Escaped Hyper-Calvinism By Searching The Scriptures And The History Of Doctrine? |author-last1=Smith|author-first1=Jared|date=5 July 2021|url=https://www.baptists.net/history/2021/07/8-andrew-fuller-escaped-hyper-calvinism-by-searching-the-scriptures-and-the-history-of-doctrine/ |access-date=2025-04-04 |website=The Baptist Particular |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rasmussen |first=John |date=2018-09-12 |title=William Carey and the Statement on Social Justice and the Gospel |url=https://www.mikeleake.net/2018/09/william-carey-and-the-statement-on-social-justice-and-the-gospel.html |access-date=2025-04-04 |website=Borrowed Light |language=en-US}}</ref>

New Calvinism is a growing perspective within conservative Evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th century Calvinism while also trying to be relevant in the present day world.<ref name="CTHansen">{{cite journal |url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2006/september/42.32.html |title=Young, Restless, Reformed |author-first1=Collin|author-last1=Hansen|date=22 September 2006 |journal=[[Christianity Today]] |access-date=13 March 2009}}</ref> In March 2009, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine described the New Calvinism as one of the "10 ideas changing the world".<ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1884779_1884782_1884760,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314031124/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1884779_1884782_1884760,00.html  |archive-date=14 March 2009 |title=10 Ideas Changing the World Right Now: The New Calvinism |magazine=Time |author=David van Biema |year=2009 |access-date=13 March 2009}}</ref> Some of the major figures who have been associated with the New Calvinism are [[John Piper (theologian)|John Piper]],<ref name=CTHansen /> [[Mark Driscoll (pastor)|Mark Driscoll]], [[Al Mohler]],<ref name=Time /> [[Mark Dever]],<ref name=Burek>{{cite news|last=Burek|first=Josh|title=Christian faith: Calvinism is back|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2010/0327/Christian-faith-Calvinism-is-back|access-date=16 March 2011|newspaper=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=27 March 2010}}</ref> [[C. J. Mahaney]], and [[Timothy J. Keller|Tim Keller]].<ref name=CRN>{{cite news|url=http://christianresearchnetwork.com/?p=17772 |title=Tim Keller and the New Calvinist idea of "Gospel eco-systems" |last=Chew |first=David |date=June 2010 |publisher=Christian Research Network  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011091605/http://christianresearchnetwork.com/?p=17772 |archive-date=11 October 2011 }}</ref> New Calvinists have been criticized for blending Calvinist soteriology with popular Evangelical positions on the [[Sacrament#Reformed (Continental Reformed, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian)|sacraments]] and [[continuationism]] and for rejecting tenets seen as crucial to the Reformed faith such as [[Reformed confessions of faith|confessionalism]] and [[covenant theology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://heidelblog.net/2009/03/calvinism-old-and-new/ |title=Calvinism Old and "New" |first=R. Scott |last=Clark|author-link=R. Scott Clark |date=15 March 2009  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701182929/http://heidelblog.net/2009/03/calvinism-old-and-new/ |archive-date=1 July 2015 }}</ref>

Alongside the liberal development of the Netherlands came the rise of modern [[democracy]] in England and North America. In the Middle Ages, state and church had been closely connected. [[Martin Luther]]'s [[doctrine of the two kingdoms]] separated state and church in principle.<ref>Heinrich Bornkamm, ''Toleranz'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 941.</ref> His doctrine of the [[priesthood of all believers]] raised the laity to the same level as the clergy.<ref>B. Lohse, ''Priestertum'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 579–580.</ref> Going one step further, Calvin included elected laymen ([[church elder]]s, [[presbyters]]) in his concept of [[Ecclesiastical polity|church government]]. The Huguenots added [[synod]]s whose members were also elected by the congregations. The other Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government, which was essentially a representative democracy.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', p. 325.</ref> [[Baptists]], [[Quakers]], and [[Methodists]] are organized in a similar way. These denominations and the [[Anglican Church]] were influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', pp. 329–330, 382, 422–424.</ref><ref>

In another factor in the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world, Calvin favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government ([[mixed government]]). He appreciated the advantages of democracy.<ref>Jan Weerda, ''Calvin'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart, Germany, col. 210.</ref> His political thought aimed to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary men and women. In order to minimize the misuse of political power he suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances ([[separation of powers]]).{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political [[absolute monarchy|absolutism]] and furthered the cause of democracy.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 10.</ref> The [[Congregationalists]] who founded [[Plymouth Colony]] (1620) and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.<ref>M. Schmidt, ''Pilgerväter'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 384.</ref><ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', p. 18.</ref> Enjoying self-rule, they practiced separation of powers.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html |title= Plymouth Colony Legal Structure |publisher= Histarch.uiuc.edu |date= 14 December 2007 |access-date= 5 December 2013 |archive-date= 29 April 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120429000512/http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Allen |last1=Weinstein |author-link1=Allen Weinstein |first2=David |last2=Rubel |year=2002 |title=The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower |publisher=[[DK Publishing]], Inc. |location=New York |isbn=0-7894-8903-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/storyofamericafr00wein/page/56 56–62] |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofamericafr00wein/page/56}}</ref> [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], and [[Pennsylvania]], founded by [[Roger Williams]], [[Thomas Hooker]], and [[William Penn]], respectively, combined democratic government with a limited [[freedom of religion]] that did not extend to Catholics (Congregationalism being the established, tax-supported religion in Connecticut).<ref>Catholic Encyclopedia: "Connecticut". New Advent. Retrieved 2017-07-07.</ref> These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including [[Jews]].<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in America'', pp. 74–76, 99–117.</ref><ref>Hans Fantel (1974), ''William Penn: Apostle of Dissent'', William Morrow and Company, New York.</ref><ref>Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), ''Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America'', Judson Press, Valley Forge.</ref>

In the 19th century, churches based on or influenced by Calvin's theology became deeply involved in social reforms, e.g. the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of slavery]] ([[William Wilberforce]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Abraham Lincoln]], and others), [[women suffrage]], and [[prison reform]]s.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 353–375.</ref><ref>M. Schmidt, ''Kongregationalismus'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1769–1771.</ref> Members of these churches formed [[co-operatives]] to help the impoverished masses.<ref>Wilhelm Dietrich, ''Genossenschaften'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage (1958), col. 411–412.</ref> The founders of the [[Red Cross Movement]], including [[Henry Dunant]], were Reformed Christians. Their movement also initiated the [[Geneva Conventions]].<ref>Ulrich Scheuner, ''Genfer Konventionen'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage, col. 407–408.</ref><ref>R. Pfister, ''Schweiz'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 1614–1615.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dromi |first1=Shai M. |url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo46479924.html |title=Above the fray: The Red Cross and the making of the humanitarian NGO sector |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-68010-1 |location=Chicago |page=45 |language=en-us}}</ref>

Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly people, and educational institutions on all levels. For example, American Congregationalists founded [[Harvard University]] (1636), [[Yale University]] (1701), and about a dozen other colleges.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Clifton E. |last1=Olmstead|title=History of Religion in the United States|pages=80, 89, 257}}</ref> A particular stream of influence of Calvinism concerns art. Visual art cemented society in the first modern nation state, the Netherlands, and also Neo-Calvinism put much weight on this aspect of life. [[Hans Rookmaaker]] is the most prolific example. In literature the non-fiction of [[Marilynne Robinson]]