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{{Short description| | {{Short description|Device used for calculations}} | ||
{{About|the electronic device|mechanical precursors to the modern calculator|Mechanical calculator|other uses}} | {{About|the electronic device|mechanical precursors to the modern calculator|Mechanical calculator|other uses}} | ||
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}} | {{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}} | ||
{{ | {{Use British English|date=June 2022}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=June 2022}} | {{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=June 2022}} | ||
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[[File:Fx-991EX.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|A modern scientific calculator with a [[dot-matrix display]]]] | [[File:Fx-991EX.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|A modern scientific calculator with a [[dot-matrix display]]]] | ||
A '''calculator''' is typically a portable [[Electronics|electronic]] device used to perform [[calculation]]s, ranging from basic [[arithmetic]] to complex [[mathematics]]. | |||
The first [[solid-state electronic]] calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the [[Intel 4004]], the first [[microprocessor]], was developed by [[Intel]] for the Japanese calculator company [[Busicom]]. Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, [[ISO/IEC 7810|credit-card-sized]] models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of [[integrated circuit]]s reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools. | The first [[solid-state electronic]] calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the [[Intel 4004]], the first [[microprocessor]], was developed by [[Intel]] for the Japanese calculator company [[Busicom]]. Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, [[ISO/IEC 7810|credit-card-sized]] models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of [[integrated circuit]]s reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools. | ||
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===Memory=== | ===Memory=== | ||
Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into [[computer memory]]. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in [[variable (mathematics)|variable]]s. Usually these variables are named ans or ans(0).<ref>[https://education.ti.com/en/guidebook/details/en/706B2B75F7D3464EBE6A8F8BE9F00EAC/30xii Texas Instruments TI-30X IIB Quick Reference Guide], Page 1 - Last Answer</ref> The variables can also be used for constructing [[formula]]s. Some models have the ability to extend [[Computer memory|memory]] capacity to store more numbers; the extended [[memory address]] is termed an [[array data structure|array]] index. | Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into [[computer memory]]. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in [[variable (mathematics)|variable]]s. Usually these variables are named ans or ans(0).<ref>[https://education.ti.com/en/guidebook/details/en/706B2B75F7D3464EBE6A8F8BE9F00EAC/30xii Texas Instruments TI-30X IIB Quick Reference Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028102220/https://education.ti.com/en/guidebook/details/en/706B2B75F7D3464EBE6A8F8BE9F00EAC/30xii |date=2023-10-28 }}, Page 1 - Last Answer</ref> The variables can also be used for constructing [[formula]]s. Some models have the ability to extend [[Computer memory|memory]] capacity to store more numbers; the extended [[memory address]] is termed an [[array data structure|array]] index. | ||
===Power source=== | ===Power source=== | ||
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* [[Keypad]] (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands ([[addition]], [[multiplication]], [[square root]], etc.) | * [[Keypad]] (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands ([[addition]], [[multiplication]], [[square root]], etc.) | ||
* Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs), [[vacuum fluorescent display]]s (VFDs), and [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) displays use [[Seven-segment display|seven segments]] to represent each [[Numerical digit|digit]] in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use [[dot matrix]] displays. | * Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. [[Liquid-crystal display]]s (LCDs), [[vacuum fluorescent display]]s (VFDs), and [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) displays use [[Seven-segment display|seven segments]] to represent each [[Numerical digit|digit]] in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use [[dot matrix]] displays. | ||
** A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper | ** A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink or thermally onto a roll of paper. | ||
* Processor [[Chipset|chip]] ([[microprocessor]] or [[central processing unit]]). | * Processor [[Chipset|chip]] ([[microprocessor]] or [[central processing unit]]). | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|Scanning ([[Polling (computer science)|Polling]]) unit | |Scanning ([[Polling (computer science)|Polling]]) unit | ||
|When a calculator is powered on, it scans the [[keypad]] waiting to pick up an [[electrical signal]] when a key is pressed. | |When a calculator is powered on, it scans the [[keypad]] waiting to pick up an [[electrical signal]] when a key is pressed. Polling is usually implemented in software. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|X [[Processor register|register]] and Y register | |X [[Processor register|register]] and Y register | ||
| | |Memory where numbers are stored temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number in the X register is shown on the display. Usually implemented in RAM. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|[[Flag register]] | |[[Flag register]] | ||
|The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it. | |The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it. Usually implemented in RAM. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Permanent [[Computer memory|memory]] ([[ROM]]) | |Permanent [[Computer memory|memory]] ([[ROM]]) | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|User memory ([[RAM]]) | |User memory ([[RAM]]) | ||
| | |Location where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory contents can be changed or erased by the user. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|[[Arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU) | |[[Arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU) | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|[[Binary decoder]] unit | |[[Binary decoder]] unit | ||
|Converts [[binary code]] into | |Converts [[binary code]] into 1-of-n code to simplify scanning the display and keyboard. | ||
|} | |} | ||
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To perform the calculation {{nowrap|25 + 9}}, one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: {{key press|2}} {{key press|5}} {{key press|+}} {{key press|9}} {{key press|{{=}}}}. | To perform the calculation {{nowrap|25 + 9}}, one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: {{key press|2}} {{key press|5}} {{key press|+}} {{key press|9}} {{key press|{{=}}}}. | ||
:* When {{key press|2}} {{key press|5}} is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X register; | :* When {{key press|2}} {{key press|5}} is entered, it is picked up by the keyboard scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded as two BCD digits and sent to the X register; | ||
:* Next, when the {{key press|+}} key is pressed, the "[[addition]]" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the [[status register]]; | :* Next, when the {{key press|+}} key is pressed, the "[[addition]]" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the [[status register]]; | ||
:* The second number {{Key press|9}} is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out into the Y register; | :* The second number {{Key press|9}} is encoded as BCD and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out into the Y register; | ||
:* When the {{key press|{{=}}}} key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or [[status register]] tells the | :* When the {{key press|{{=}}}} key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or [[status register]] tells the processor that the operation to be done is "[[addition]]"; | ||
:* The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the [[Arithmetic logic unit|ALU]] and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory; | :* The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the [[Arithmetic logic unit|ALU]] digit by digit and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory; | ||
:* The answer, 34 is | :* The answer, 34 is deposited back to the X register. From there, it is converted to seven-segment code and shown on the display panel. | ||
Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions. | Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions. | ||
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[[File:Grant mechanical calculating machine 1877.jpg|thumb|left|The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877]] | [[File:Grant mechanical calculating machine 1877.jpg|thumb|left|The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877]] | ||
The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by [[Giovanni Poleni|Poleni]] with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always ''one of a kind''. [[Luigi Torchi]] invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James White (1822).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Denis Roegel |editor= David Walden | The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by [[Giovanni Poleni|Poleni]] with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always ''one of a kind''. [[Luigi Torchi (inventor)|Luigi Torchi]] invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of [[James White (inventor)|James White]] (1822).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Denis Roegel |editor= David Walden |title=Before Torchi and Schwilgué, There Was White |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |date=October–December 2016 |volume= 38 |issue= 4 |pages=92–93 |doi= 10.1109/MAHC.2016.46 |bibcode= 2016IAHC...38d..92R |s2cid= 28873771 }}</ref> It was not until the 19th century and the [[Industrial Revolution]] that real developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more compact and modern units possible. The [[Arithmometer]], invented in 1820 as a four-operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold<ref>{{cite web |title=Modèles Payen |website=Arithmometre.org |url=http://www.arithmometre.org/NumerosSerie/PageNumerosSeriePayen.html |access-date=2013-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521075617/http://www.arithmometre.org/NumerosSerie/PageNumerosSeriePayen.html |archive-date=2013-05-21 |url-status=live}}</ref> plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 [[comptometer]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Felt |first=Dorr E. |year=1916 |title=Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine |page=[https://archive.org/details/mechanicalarithm00feltrich/page/n7 4] |publisher=Washington Institute |location=Chicago |url=https://archive.org/details/mechanicalarithm00feltrich |url-status=live |archive-date=2016-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703013921/https://archive.org/details/mechanicalarithm00feltrich}}</ref> | ||
[[File:EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png|thumb|upright|right|Patent image of the Clarke graph-based calculator, 1921]] | [[File:EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png|thumb|upright|right|Patent image of the Clarke graph-based calculator, 1921]] | ||
It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the [[United States]]. | It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the [[United States]]. | ||
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The first [[mainframe computer]]s, initially using [[vacuum tube]]s and later [[transistor]]s in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. Electronic circuits developed for computers also had application to electronic calculators. | The first [[mainframe computer]]s, initially using [[vacuum tube]]s and later [[transistor]]s in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. Electronic circuits developed for computers also had application to electronic calculators. | ||
The [[Casio]] Computer Company, in [[Japan]], released the Model ''14-A'' calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on [[relay]] technology, and was built into a desk. The [[IBM 608]] plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957; this was a console type system, with input and output on punched cards, and replaced the earlier, larger, vacuum-tube [[IBM 603]]. | The [[Casio]] Computer Company, in [[Japan]], released the Model ''[[Casio 14 series|14-A]]'' calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on [[relay]] technology, and was built into a desk. The [[IBM 608]] plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957; this was a console type system, with input and output on punched cards, and replaced the earlier, larger, vacuum-tube [[IBM 603]]. | ||
[[File:LED DISP.JPG|thumb|Early calculator [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) display from the 1970s ([[USSR]])]] | [[File:LED DISP.JPG|thumb|Early calculator [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) display from the 1970s ([[USSR]])]] | ||
In October 1961, the world's first ''all-electronic desktop'' calculator, the British [[Bell Punch]]/Sumlock Comptometer [[Sumlock ANITA calculator|ANITA]] ('''A''' '''N'''ew '''I'''nspiration '''T'''o '''A'''rithmetic/'''A'''ccounting) was announced.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Simple and Silent |magazine=Office Magazine |date=December 1961 |page=1244}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title='Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat |trans-title='Anita' the first portable electronic computer |magazine=Büromaschinen Mechaniker |date=November 1961 |page=207}}</ref> This machine used [[vacuum tube]]s, cold-cathode tubes and [[Dekatron]]s in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode [[Nixie tube|"Nixie"]] tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical [[comptometer]]s of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly {{convert|33|lb|kg}} due to its large tube system.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ball |first1=Guy |last2=Flamm |first2=Bruce |date=1996 |title=The History of Pocket Electronic Calculators |url=http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/history_of_electronic_calculat.html |website=Vintage Calculators Web Museum |access-date=8 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703140814/http://vintagecalculators.com/html/history_of_electronic_calculat.html |archive-date=3 July 2014}}</ref> Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British [[Pilot ACE]] computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. | In October 1961, the world's first ''all-electronic desktop'' calculator, the British [[Bell Punch]]/Sumlock Comptometer [[Sumlock ANITA calculator|ANITA]] ('''A''' '''N'''ew '''I'''nspiration '''T'''o '''A'''rithmetic/'''A'''ccounting) was announced.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Simple and Silent |magazine=Office Magazine |date=December 1961 |page=1244}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title='Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat |trans-title='Anita' the first portable electronic computer |magazine=Büromaschinen Mechaniker |date=November 1961 |page=207}}</ref> This machine used [[vacuum tube]]s, cold-cathode tubes and [[Dekatron]]s in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode [[Nixie tube|"Nixie"]] tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical [[comptometer]]s of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly {{convert|33|lb|kg}} due to its large tube system.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ball |first1=Guy |last2=Flamm |first2=Bruce |date=1996 |title=The History of Pocket Electronic Calculators |url=http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/history_of_electronic_calculat.html |website=Vintage Calculators Web Museum |access-date=8 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703140814/http://vintagecalculators.com/html/history_of_electronic_calculat.html |archive-date=3 July 2014}}</ref> Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British [[Pilot ACE]] computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. | ||
The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured [[Friden, Inc.|Friden]] EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a {{convert|5|in|cm|adj=on}} [[cathode | The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured [[Friden, Inc.|Friden]] EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a {{convert|5|in|cm|adj=on}} [[cathode ray tube]] (CRT), and introduced [[Reverse Polish Notation]] (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] introduced the [[CS-10A]], which weighed {{convert|25|kg|lb}} and cost 500,000 yen (${{To USD|500000|JPN}}), and [[Industria Macchine Elettroniche]] of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The [[Victor 3900]] was the first to use [[integrated circuit]]s in place of individual [[transistor]]s, but production problems delayed sales until 1966. | ||
[[File:Elka-22 (I197211).png|thumb|The Bulgarian [[ELKA 22]] from 1967]] | [[File:Elka-22 (I197211).png|thumb|The Bulgarian [[ELKA 22]] from 1967]] | ||
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[[File:Olivetti Programma 101 - Museo scienza e tecnologia Milano.jpg|thumb|left|The Italian [[Programma 101]], an early commercial programmable calculator produced by [[Olivetti]] in 1964]] | [[File:Olivetti Programma 101 - Museo scienza e tecnologia Milano.jpg|thumb|left|The Italian [[Programma 101]], an early commercial programmable calculator produced by [[Olivetti]] in 1964]] | ||
The first desktop ''programmable calculators'' were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the [[Mathatronics Mathatron]] (1964) and the [[Olivetti]] [[Programma 101]] (late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html| title=Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator |website=The Old Calculator Web Museum}}</ref><ref name="oldcalculatormuseum.com">{{cite web| url=https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-math8-48m.html| title=Mathatronics Mathatron 8-48M Mod II Electronic Calculator |website=The Old Calculator Web Museum}}</ref> Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards.<ref name="oldcalculatormuseum.com"/> | The first desktop ''programmable calculators'' were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the [[Mathatronics Mathatron]] (1964) and the [[Olivetti]] [[Programma 101]] (late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html| title= Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator| website= The Old Calculator Web Museum| access-date= 2020-02-26 | archive-date= 2003-05-09 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20030509092843/https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html| url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="oldcalculatormuseum.com">{{cite web| url=https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-math8-48m.html| title=Mathatronics Mathatron 8-48M Mod II Electronic Calculator| website=The Old Calculator Web Museum| access-date=2020-02-26 | archive-date=2020-01-31 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131233443/https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-math8-48m.html| url-status=live}}</ref> Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards.<ref name="oldcalculatormuseum.com"/> | ||
Another early programmable desktop calculator (and maybe the first Japanese one) was the [[Casio]] (AL-1000) produced in 1967. It featured a [[nixie tube]]s display and had transistor electronics and ferrite core memory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Casio AL-1000 calculator |place=Australia |publisher=Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences |url=https://ma.as/365845 |access-date=8 June 2023}}</ref> | Another early programmable desktop calculator (and maybe the first Japanese one) was the [[Casio]] (AL-1000) produced in 1967. It featured a [[nixie tube]]s display and had transistor electronics and ferrite core memory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Casio AL-1000 calculator |place=Australia |publisher=Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences |url=https://ma.as/365845 |access-date=8 June 2023}}</ref> | ||
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{{Redirect|Pocket calculator|the song|Computer World}} | {{Redirect|Pocket calculator|the song|Computer World}} | ||
[[File:2010 CURTA-Calculator 08.jpg|alt=A person's hand is holding a small, metallic cylinder with a crank sticking out. |thumb|[[curta|The first pocket calculator]] used a crank instead of electronics.<ref name="FirstPocketCalculator" />]] | [[File:2010 CURTA-Calculator 08.jpg|alt=A person's hand is holding a small, metallic cylinder with a crank sticking out. |thumb|[[curta|The first pocket calculator]] used a crank instead of electronics.<ref name="FirstPocketCalculator" />]] | ||
Released in 1947, the first pocket calculator which could perform the four basic arithmetic functions with digital precision was the [[Curta]], a mechanical device operated by a crank, bearing | Released in 1947, the first pocket calculator which could perform the four basic arithmetic functions with digital precision was the [[Curta]], a mechanical device operated by a crank, bearing "an uncanny resemblance to a pepper grinder".<ref name="FirstPocketCalculator" /> The readout was digital with eleven digits of precision. For comparison, the contemporaneous [[Slide rule|ten inch slide rule]] used analog calculation to approximate answers to only four digits of precision.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Charles Overton |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/005735914 |title=Slide rule simplified |last2=American Technical Society. |publisher=American technical society |year=1944 |location=Chicago}}</ref> The Curta remained the finest pocket calculator available for a quarter of a century.<ref name="FirstPocketCalculator">{{Cite journal |last=Stoll |first=Cliff |date=2004 |title=the Curious History of the First Pocket Calculator |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26172659 |journal=Scientific American |volume=290 |issue=1 |pages=92–99 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0104-92 |jstor=26172659 |pmid=14682043 |bibcode=2004SciAm.290a..92S |issn=0036-8733|url-access=subscription }}</ref> | ||
By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. {{anchor|Cal Tech}}The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called '''''Cal Tech''''', whose development was led by [[Jack Kilby]] at [[Texas Instruments]] in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape.<ref>{{cite web |website=Education Technology |date=15 August 2002 |url=http://education.ti.com/educationportal/sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_release_news37.html |title=Texas Instruments Celebrates the 35th Anniversary of Its Invention of the Calculator |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627144010/http://education.ti.com/educationportal/sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_release_news37.html |archive-date=2008-06-27 |publisher=[[Texas Instruments]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14845433 |title=Electronic Calculator Invented 40 Years Ago |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151504/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14845433 |archive-date=2008-12-05 |work=All Things Considered |publisher=NPR |date=30 September 2007}} Audio interview with one of the inventors.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=50 Jahre Taschenrechner – Die Erfindung, die niemand haben wollte |language=de |trans-title=50th anniversary of calculators – the invention not wanted by anyone |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] (FAZ) |date=2017-03-27 |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html |access-date=2017-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329202602/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html |archive-date=2017-03-29 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=May |first=Mike |title=How the Computer Got Into Your Pocket |magazine=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |date=Spring 2000 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=42–54 |url=https://www.dropbox.com/s/bwwc9q3y090d2r8/How_the_Computer_Got_Into_Your_Pocket.pdf |access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Texas Edison |author-first=T. R. |author-last=Reid |magazine=[[Texas Monthly]] |date=July 1982}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The First Handheld Digital Calculator Celebrates 50 Years |url=http://electronicdesign.com/analog/first-handheld-digital-calculator-celebrates-50-years-part-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413153616/http://electronicdesign.com/analog/first-handheld-digital-calculator-celebrates-50-years-part-1 |archive-date=2017-04-13 |url-status=live |date=2017-03-27 |magazine=Electronic Design |first=Thomas |last=Okon}}</ref> As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators.{{efn|The Japanese Patent Office granted a patent in June 1978 to Texas Instruments (TI) based on US patent 3819921, notwithstanding objections from 12 Japanese calculator manufacturers. This gave TI the right to claim royalties retroactively to the original publication of the Japanese patent application in August 1974. A TI spokesman said that it would actively seek what was due, either in cash or technology cross-licensing agreements. 19 other countries, including the United Kingdom, had already granted a similar patent to Texas Instruments.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=August 17, 1978 |title=New from Texas Instruments: The World's Most Powerful Pocket Calculator |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-U8eAQAAMAAJ&q=Texas%20Instruments |journal=[[New Scientist]] |pages=455 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=October 1978 |title=Patent Victory |url=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/UK/Practical-Electronics/70s/Practical-Electronics-1978-10.pdf |journal=[[Practical Electronics]] |volume=14 |issue=14 |pages=1095 |via=World Radio History}}</ref>}} | By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. {{anchor|Cal Tech}}The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called '''''Cal Tech''''', whose development was led by [[Jack Kilby]] at [[Texas Instruments]] in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape.<ref>{{cite web |website=Education Technology |date=15 August 2002 |url=http://education.ti.com/educationportal/sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_release_news37.html |title=Texas Instruments Celebrates the 35th Anniversary of Its Invention of the Calculator |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627144010/http://education.ti.com/educationportal/sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_release_news37.html |archive-date=2008-06-27 |publisher=[[Texas Instruments]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14845433 |title=Electronic Calculator Invented 40 Years Ago |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151504/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14845433 |archive-date=2008-12-05 |work=All Things Considered |publisher=NPR |date=30 September 2007}} Audio interview with one of the inventors.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=50 Jahre Taschenrechner – Die Erfindung, die niemand haben wollte |language=de |trans-title=50th anniversary of calculators – the invention not wanted by anyone |work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] (FAZ) |date=2017-03-27 |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html |access-date=2017-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329202602/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html |archive-date=2017-03-29 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=May |first=Mike |title=How the Computer Got Into Your Pocket |magazine=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |date=Spring 2000 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=42–54 |url=https://www.dropbox.com/s/bwwc9q3y090d2r8/How_the_Computer_Got_Into_Your_Pocket.pdf |access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Texas Edison |author-first=T. R. |author-last=Reid |magazine=[[Texas Monthly]] |date=July 1982}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The First Handheld Digital Calculator Celebrates 50 Years |url=http://electronicdesign.com/analog/first-handheld-digital-calculator-celebrates-50-years-part-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413153616/http://electronicdesign.com/analog/first-handheld-digital-calculator-celebrates-50-years-part-1 |archive-date=2017-04-13 |url-status=live |date=2017-03-27 |magazine=Electronic Design |first=Thomas |last=Okon}}</ref> As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators.{{efn|The Japanese Patent Office granted a patent in June 1978 to Texas Instruments (TI) based on US patent 3819921, notwithstanding objections from 12 Japanese calculator manufacturers. This gave TI the right to claim royalties retroactively to the original publication of the Japanese patent application in August 1974. A TI spokesman said that it would actively seek what was due, either in cash or technology cross-licensing agreements. 19 other countries, including the United Kingdom, had already granted a similar patent to Texas Instruments.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=August 17, 1978 |title=New from Texas Instruments: The World's Most Powerful Pocket Calculator |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-U8eAQAAMAAJ&q=Texas%20Instruments |journal=[[New Scientist]] |pages=455 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=October 1978 |title=Patent Victory |url=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/UK/Practical-Electronics/70s/Practical-Electronics-1978-10.pdf |journal=[[Practical Electronics]] |volume=14 |issue=14 |pages=1095 |via=World Radio History}}</ref>}} | ||
| Line 209: | Line 206: | ||
The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epocalc.net/pages/calc_premieres |title=The first portable calculators |website=epocalc |access-date=30 December 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020141/http://www.epocalc.net/pages/calc_premieres |archive-date=28 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jutarnji.hr/40--rodendan-digitrona--u-bujama-je-izraden-prvi-europski-dzepni-kalkulator--te-1971-kostao-je-koliko-i-fico/954368/ |title=U Bujama je izrađen prvi europski džepni kalkulator. Te 1971. koštao je koliko i fićo |trans-title=The first European pocket calculator was made in Buje. In 1971, it cost as much as a son|language=hr|date=20 June 2011 |access-date=30 December 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003213/http://www.jutarnji.hr/40--rodendan-digitrona--u-bujama-je-izraden-prvi-europski-dzepni-kalkulator--te-1971-kostao-je-koliko-i-fico/954368/|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> was made in May 1971 by [[Digitron (company)|Digitron]] in [[Buje]], [[Croatia]] (former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display. | The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epocalc.net/pages/calc_premieres |title=The first portable calculators |website=epocalc |access-date=30 December 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028020141/http://www.epocalc.net/pages/calc_premieres |archive-date=28 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jutarnji.hr/40--rodendan-digitrona--u-bujama-je-izraden-prvi-europski-dzepni-kalkulator--te-1971-kostao-je-koliko-i-fico/954368/ |title=U Bujama je izrađen prvi europski džepni kalkulator. Te 1971. koštao je koliko i fićo |trans-title=The first European pocket calculator was made in Buje. In 1971, it cost as much as a son|language=hr|date=20 June 2011 |access-date=30 December 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003213/http://www.jutarnji.hr/40--rodendan-digitrona--u-bujama-je-izraden-prvi-europski-dzepni-kalkulator--te-1971-kostao-je-koliko-i-fico/954368/|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> was made in May 1971 by [[Digitron (company)|Digitron]] in [[Buje]], [[Croatia]] (former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display. | ||
The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed ''The Bowmar Brain''), measuring {{convert|5.2 x 3.0 x 1.5|in|mm}}, came out in the | The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed ''The Bowmar Brain''), measuring {{convert|5.2 x 3.0 x 1.5|in|mm}}, came out in the autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, for {{US$|240}}, while in August 1972 the four-function [[Sinclair Executive]] became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring {{convert|5.4 x 2.2 x 0.35|in|mm}} and weighing {{convert|2.5|oz|g}}. It retailed for around £79 ({{US$|194}} at the time). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 (${{To USD|5|GBR}}). Following protracted development over the course of two years including a botched partnership with Texas Instruments, [[Eldorado Electrodata]] released five pocket calculators in 1972. One called the Touch Magic was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes" according to ''Administrative Management''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bellotto |first=Sam Jr. |date=August 1972 |title=Calculators: They Just Keep Multiplying |pages=68–73 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_administrative-management_1972-08_33_8/page/n67 |journal=Administrative Management |volume=33 |issue=8 |publisher=Geyer-McAllister Publications |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | ||
The first [[Soviet Union]] made pocket-sized calculator, the ''Elektronika B3-04''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=26 |publisher=Soviet Digital Electronics Museum |title=ELEKTRONIKA B3-04 |work=Коллекция советской цифровой электроники |trans-work=Collection of Soviet digital electronics}}</ref> was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974. | The first [[Soviet Union]] made pocket-sized calculator, the ''Elektronika B3-04''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=26 |publisher=Soviet Digital Electronics Museum |title=ELEKTRONIKA B3-04 |work=Коллекция советской цифровой электроники |trans-work=Collection of Soviet digital electronics}}</ref> was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974. | ||
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File:Casio cm602.jpg|The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s. | File:Casio cm602.jpg|The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s. | ||
File:SinclairExecutive-01.jpg|The 1972 [[Sinclair Executive]] pocket calculator. | File:SinclairExecutive-01.jpg|The 1972 [[Sinclair Executive]] pocket calculator. | ||
File: | File:Hp-35 1972.jpg|The [[HP-35]], the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972). | ||
File:Canon Pocketronic.jpg|Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971). | File:Canon Pocketronic.jpg|Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971). | ||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
| Line 285: | Line 282: | ||
|image2=Scientific Calculator.jpg |caption2=A Catiga CS-103 scientific calculator | |image2=Scientific Calculator.jpg |caption2=A Catiga CS-103 scientific calculator | ||
}} | }} | ||
In most countries, [[student]]s use calculators for schoolwork. There was some{{by whom|date=June 2022}} initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or [[elementary arithmetic]] skills would suffer.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/from-calculators-ai-overcoming-resistance-technology-academia-daniel/ | title=From Calculators to AI: Overcoming Resistance to Technology in Academia }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis| last=Banks | first=Sarah | title=A Historical Analysis of Attitudes Toward the Use of Calculators in Junior High and High School Math Classrooms in the United States Since 1975 | publisher=Cedarville University| date=2012-05-16 | url=https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/education_theses/31}}</ref> There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations ''in the head'', with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching [[Approximation|estimation]] methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Thomas J. Bing |author2=Edward F. Redish |title=Symbolic Manipulators Affect Mathematical Mindsets |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=76 |issue=4 |page=418 |date=2007-12-07 |arxiv=0712.1187 |s2cid=28555451 |doi=10.1119/1.2835053 |bibcode=2008AmJPh..76..418B}}</ref> Others have argued{{who|date=December 2011}} that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Calculator Use in Elementary Grades |website=NCTM |url=http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|access-date=3 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905072126/http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|archive-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> In December 2011 the [[UK]]'s [[Department for Education|Minister of State for Schools]], [[Nick Gibb]], voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators.<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |title=Subtracting calculators adds to children's maths abilities, says minister |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=December 7, 2011 |author=Vasagar, Jeevan |location=London |author2=Shepherd, Jessica |quote=The use of calculators will be looked at as part of a national curriculum review, after the schools minister, Nick Gibb, expressed concern that children's mental and written arithmetic was suffering because of reliance on the devices. Gibb said: "Children can become too dependent on calculators if they use them at too young an age. They shouldn't be reaching for a gadget every time they need to do a simple sum. [...]" |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309100226/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |archive-date=March 9, 2016 }}</ref> As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the [[National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)|Curriculum]].<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators" /> In the United States, many math educators and boards of education have enthusiastically endorsed the [[National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]] (NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school. | In most countries, [[student]]s use calculators for schoolwork. There was some{{by whom|date=June 2022}} initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or [[elementary arithmetic]] skills would suffer.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/from-calculators-ai-overcoming-resistance-technology-academia-daniel/ | title=From Calculators to AI: Overcoming Resistance to Technology in Academia | access-date=2025-04-15 | archive-date=2025-04-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250420063653/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/from-calculators-ai-overcoming-resistance-technology-academia-daniel/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis | last=Banks | first=Sarah | title=A Historical Analysis of Attitudes Toward the Use of Calculators in Junior High and High School Math Classrooms in the United States Since 1975 | publisher=Cedarville University | date=2012-05-16 | url=https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/education_theses/31 | archive-date=2025-05-14 | access-date=2025-04-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250514175009/https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/education_theses/31/ | url-status=live }}</ref> There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations ''in the head'', with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching [[Approximation|estimation]] methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Thomas J. Bing |author2=Edward F. Redish |title=Symbolic Manipulators Affect Mathematical Mindsets |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=76 |issue=4 |page=418 |date=2007-12-07 |arxiv=0712.1187 |s2cid=28555451 |doi=10.1119/1.2835053 |bibcode=2008AmJPh..76..418B}}</ref> Others have argued{{who|date=December 2011}} that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Calculator Use in Elementary Grades |website=NCTM |url=http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|access-date=3 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905072126/http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|archive-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> In December 2011 the [[UK]]'s [[Department for Education|Minister of State for Schools]], [[Nick Gibb]], voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators.<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |title=Subtracting calculators adds to children's maths abilities, says minister |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=December 7, 2011 |author=Vasagar, Jeevan |location=London |author2=Shepherd, Jessica |quote=The use of calculators will be looked at as part of a national curriculum review, after the schools minister, Nick Gibb, expressed concern that children's mental and written arithmetic was suffering because of reliance on the devices. Gibb said: "Children can become too dependent on calculators if they use them at too young an age. They shouldn't be reaching for a gadget every time they need to do a simple sum. [...]" |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309100226/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |archive-date=March 9, 2016 }}</ref> As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the [[National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)|Curriculum]].<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators" /> In the United States, many math educators and boards of education have enthusiastically endorsed the [[National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]] (NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school. | ||
Calculators may in some circumstances be used within school and college [[examinations]]. In the United Kingdom there are limitations on the type of calculator which may be used in an examination to avoid malpractice. Some calculators which offer additional functionality have an "exam mode" setting which makes them compliant with examination regulations.<ref>[[Joint Council for Qualifications]], [https://www.jcq.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/JCQ-Instructions-for-conducting-examinations-2024_FINAL_accessible.pdf Instructions for conducting examinations], section 10.9, September 2024, accessed on 27 December 2024</ref> | Calculators may in some circumstances be used within school and college [[examinations]]. In the United Kingdom there are limitations on the type of calculator which may be used in an examination to avoid malpractice. Some calculators which offer additional functionality have an "exam mode" setting which makes them compliant with examination regulations.<ref>[[Joint Council for Qualifications]], [https://www.jcq.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/JCQ-Instructions-for-conducting-examinations-2024_FINAL_accessible.pdf Instructions for conducting examinations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241226074002/https://www.jcq.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/JCQ-Instructions-for-conducting-examinations-2024_FINAL_accessible.pdf |date=2024-12-26 }}, section 10.9, September 2024, accessed on 27 December 2024</ref> | ||
==Personal computers== | ==Personal computers== | ||
| Line 298: | Line 295: | ||
For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement [[floating point]] mathematics with code in [[read-only memory]] (ROM), and compute [[trigonometric function]]s with the [[CORDIC]] algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. [[Serial communication|Bit serial]] logic designs are more common in calculators whereas [[bit parallel]] designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes [[chipset|chip]] complexity, but takes many more [[clock cycles]]. This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the [[Z80]], [[MC68000]], and [[ARM architecture family|ARM]] architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market. | For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement [[floating point]] mathematics with code in [[read-only memory]] (ROM), and compute [[trigonometric function]]s with the [[CORDIC]] algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. [[Serial communication|Bit serial]] logic designs are more common in calculators whereas [[bit parallel]] designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes [[chipset|chip]] complexity, but takes many more [[clock cycles]]. This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the [[Z80]], [[MC68000]], and [[ARM architecture family|ARM]] architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market. | ||
== Software calculators == | |||
{{See also|Comparison of software calculators|Software calculator}} | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
=== Open-source === | |||
* [[Calcpad]] | |||
* [[GeoGebra]] | |||
* [[GNOME Calculator]] | |||
* [[GraphCalc]] | |||
* [[KCalc]] | |||
* [[Maxima (software)|Maxima]] | |||
* [[Qalculate!]] | |||
* [[WRPN Calculator]] | |||
* [[xcalc]] | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
=== Proprietary === | |||
* [[Calculator (Apple)|Apple Calculator]] | |||
* [[Desmos]] | |||
* [[Grapher]] | |||
* [[HP Prime Virtual Calculator]] | |||
* [[Mathcad]] | |||
* [[Calculator (Nintendo Switch)|Nintendo Switch calculator]] | |||
* [[PTC Mathcad]] | |||
* [[Texas Instruments]] TI-SmartView<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://valenciacollege.teamdynamix.com/TDClient/2067/Portal/KB/ArticleDet?ID=156676|title=TI SmartView Software Setup|date=25 January 2024|website=Valencia College - Knowledge Base|access-date=2026-03-03 |archive-date=2025-11-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251114063015/https://valenciacollege.teamdynamix.com/TDClient/2067/Portal/KB/ArticleDet?ID=156676|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
* [[Windows Calculator]] | |||
* [[WolframAlpha]] | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| Line 306: | Line 332: | ||
* [[HP calculators]] | * [[HP calculators]] | ||
* [[History of computing hardware]] | * [[History of computing hardware]] | ||
* [[List of spreadsheet software]] | |||
* [[Scientific calculator]] | * [[Scientific calculator]] | ||
* [[Solar-powered calculator]] | * [[Solar-powered calculator]] | ||
* [[Photomath]] | * [[Photomath]] | ||
| Line 349: | Line 375: | ||
[[Category:Calculators| ]] | [[Category:Calculators| ]] | ||
[[Category:20th-century inventions]] | |||
[[Category:American inventions]] | [[Category:American inventions]] | ||
[[Category:Electronic calculators]] | |||
[[Category:Mathematical tools]] | [[Category:Mathematical tools]] | ||
[[Category:Office equipment]] | [[Category:Office equipment]] | ||