Distillation: Difference between revisions

Line 1:

{{redirect-several|dab=no|Distillation (disambiguation)|Distiller (disambiguation)|Distillery (disambiguation)|Distill (album){{!}}''Distill'' (album)|Distill (journal){{!}}''Distill'' (journal)|Distillate (motor fuel)}}

[[File:Simple distillation apparatus.svg|thumb|upright|300px|'''Laboratory model of a still.''' '''1:''' The heat source to boil the mixture '''2:''' round-bottom flask containing the mixture to be boiled '''3:''' the head of the still '''4:''' mixture boiling-point thermometer '''5:''' the condenser of the still '''6:''' the cooling-water inlet of the condenser '''7:''' the cooling-water outlet of the condenser '''8:''' the distillate-receiving flask '''9:''' vacuum pump and gas inlet '''10:''' the receiver of the still '''11:''' the heat control for heating the mixture '''12:''' stirring mechanism speed control '''13:''' stirring mechanism and heating plate '''14:''' heating bath (oil/sand) for the flask '''15:''' the stirring mechanism (not shown, e.g. [[boiling chip]]s or mechanical stirring machine) '''16:''' the distillate-cooling water bath.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|pages=141–143}}]]

'''Distillation''', also '''classical distillation''', is the process of [[separation process|separating]] the component substances of a liquid [[mixture]] of two or more chemically discrete substances~~; the separation process is realized~~ by ~~way of the~~ selective [[boiling]] of the mixture and the [[condensation]] of the vapors in a [[still]].

'''Distillation''', also '''classical distillation''', is the process of [[separation process|separating]] the component substances of a liquid [[mixture]] of two or more chemically discrete substances by selective [[boiling]] of the mixture and the [[condensation]] of the vapors in a [[still]].

Distillation can operate over a wide range of pressures from 0.14 [[Bar (unit)|bar]] (e.g., [[ethylbenzene]]/[[styrene]]) to nearly 21 bar (e.g.,[[propylene]]/[[propane]]) and is capable of separating feeds with high volumetric flowrates and various components that cover a range of relative volatilities from only 1.17 ([[O-Xylene|o-xylene]]/[[m-xylene]]) to 81.2 (water/[[ethylene glycol]]).<ref>J. D. Seader, E. J. Henley and D. K. Roper, Separation Process Principles, Wiley, 3rd edn, 2011.</ref> Distillation provides a convenient and time-tested solution to separate a diversity of chemicals in a continuous manner with high purity. However, distillation has an enormous environmental footprint, resulting in the consumption of approximately 25% of all industrial energy use.<ref>D. S. Sholl and R. P. Lively, Nature, 2016, 532, 435–437.</ref> The key issue is that distillation operates based on phase changes, and this separation mechanism requires vast energy inputs.

Distillation can operate over a wide range of pressures from 0.14 [[Bar (unit)|bar]] (e.g., [[ethylbenzene]]/[[styrene]]) to nearly 21 bar (e.g., [[propylene]]/[[propane]]) and is capable of separating feeds with high volumetric flowrates and various components that cover a range of relative volatilities from only 1.17 ([[O-Xylene|o-xylene]]/[[m-xylene]]) to 81.2 (water/[[ethylene glycol]]).<ref>J. D. Seader, E. J. Henley and D. K. Roper, Separation Process Principles, Wiley, 3rd edn, 2011.</ref> Distillation provides a convenient and time-tested solution to separate a diversity of chemicals in a continuous manner with high purity. However, distillation has an enormous environmental footprint, resulting in the consumption of approximately 25% of all industrial energy use.<ref>D. S. Sholl and R. P. Lively, Nature, 2016, 532, 435–437.</ref> The key issue is that distillation operates based on phase changes, and this separation mechanism requires vast energy inputs.

[[Dry distillation]] ([[thermolysis]] and [[pyrolysis]]) is the heating of solid materials to produce gases that condense either into [[fluid]] products or into solid products. The term ''dry distillation'' includes the separation processes of [[destructive distillation]] and of [[Cracking (chemistry)|chemical cracking]], breaking down large [[hydrocarbon]] molecules into smaller hydrocarbon molecules. Moreover, a partial distillation results in partial separations of the mixture's components, which process yields nearly-pure components; partial distillation also realizes partial separations of the mixture to increase the concentrations of selected components. In either method, the separation process of distillation exploits the differences in the [[relative volatility]] of the component substances of the heated mixture.

[[Dry distillation]] ([[thermolysis]] and [[pyrolysis]]) is the heating of solid materials to produce gases that condense either into [[fluid]] products or into solid products. The term ''dry distillation'' includes the separation processes of [[destructive distillation]] and of [[Cracking (chemistry)|chemical cracking]], breaking down large [[hydrocarbon]] molecules into smaller hydrocarbon molecules. Moreover, a partial distillation results in partial separations of the mixture's components, which process yields nearly pure components; partial distillation also realizes partial separations of the mixture to increase the concentrations of selected components. In either method, the separation process of distillation exploits the differences in the [[relative volatility]] of the component substances of the heated mixture.

In the industrial applications of classical distillation, the term ''distillation'' is used as a [[unit operation|unit of operation]] that identifies and denotes a process of physical separation, not a [[chemical reaction]]; thus an industrial installation that produces [[liquor|distilled beverages]], is a distillery of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]]. These are some applications of the ~~chemical separation~~ process ~~that is distillation~~:

In the industrial applications of classical distillation, the term ''distillation'' is used as a [[unit operation|unit of operation]] that identifies and denotes a process of physical separation, not a [[chemical reaction]]; thus an industrial installation that produces [[liquor|distilled beverages]], is a distillery of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]]. These are some applications of the distillation process:

* Distilling [[Fermentation in food processing|fermented]] products to yield alcoholic beverages with a high content by volume of [[Ethanol|ethyl alcohol]].

* [[Desalination]] to produce potable water and for medico-industrial applications.

* [[Crude oil stabilisation]], a partial distillation to reduce the vapor pressure of crude oil, which thus is safe to store and to transport, and thereby reduces the volume of atmospheric emissions of volatile [[hydrocarbon]]s.

* [[Fractional distillation]] used in the midstream operations of an [[oil refinery]] for producing [[fuel]]s and chemical [[raw material]]s for livestock feed.<ref>Schaschke, C., 2014. A Dictionary of Chemical Engineering. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>2019. Distillation: The Historical Symbol of Chemical Engineering. The University of Toledo. URL https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230219/https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html |date=14 April 2021 }}</ref><ref>2017. Products made from petroleum. Ranken Energy Corporation. URL https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416193229/https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ |date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>

* [[Fractional distillation]] is used in the midstream operations of an [[oil refinery]] for producing [[fuel]]s and chemical [[raw material]]s for livestock feed.<ref>Schaschke, C., 2014. A Dictionary of Chemical Engineering. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>2019. Distillation: The Historical Symbol of Chemical Engineering. The University of Toledo. URL https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230219/https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html |date=14 April 2021 }}</ref><ref>2017. Products made from petroleum. Ranken Energy Corporation. URL https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416193229/https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ |date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>

* Cryogenic [[Air separation]] into the component gases — [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], and [[argon]] — for use as [[industrial gas]]es.

* [[Chemical synthesis]] to separate impurities and unreacted materials.

==History==

=== Iron Age ===

Early evidence of distillation was found on [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] tablets dated {{Circa|1200 [[BCE]]}} describing perfumery operations. The tablets provided textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the [[Babylonia]]ns of ancient [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Levey |first=Martin |title=Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=1959 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |page=36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76ILAQAAIAAJ |quote=As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.}}</ref>

=== Classical antiquity ===

===Classical antiquity===

====Greek and Roman terminology====

According to British chemist T. Fairley, neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any term for the modern concept of distillation. Words like "distill" would have referred to something else, in most cases, a part of some process unrelated to what is now known as distillation. In the words of Fairley and German chemical engineer Norbert Kockmann, respectively:

{{Blockquote

| text = The Latin "distillo," from de-stillo, from stilla, a drop, referred to the dropping of a liquid by human or artificial means, and was applied to any process where a liquid was separated in drops. To distil in the modern sense could only be expressed in a roundabout manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fairley |first=T. |date=1907 |title=The Early History of Distillation |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=559–582 |doi=10.1002/j.2050-0416.1907.tb02205.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>

}}

~~==== Greek and Roman terminology ====~~

{{Blockquote

According to British chemist T. Fairley, neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any term for the modern concept of distillation. Words like "distill" would have referred to something else, in most cases a part of some process unrelated to what now is known as distillation. In the words of Fairley and German chemical engineer Norbert Kockmann respectively:

| text = Distillation had a broader meaning in ancient and medieval times because nearly all purification and separation operations were subsumed under the term ''distillation'', such as filtration, crystallization, extraction, sublimation, or mechanical pressing of oil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kockmann |first=Norbert |url=https://www.academia.edu/43754849 |title=Distillation: Fundamentals and Principles |publisher=Academic Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-12-386547-2 |editor-last=Andrzej |editor-first=Górak |pages=1–43 |chapter=History of Distillation |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-386547-2.00001-6 |editor-last2=Sorensen |editor-first2=Eva}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=The Latin "distillo," from de-stillo, from stilla, a drop, referred to the dropping of a liquid by human or artificial means, and was applied to any process where a liquid was separated in drops. To distil in the modern sense could only be expressed in a roundabout manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fairley |first=T. |date=1907 |title=The Early History of Distillation |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1907.tb02205.x |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=559–582 |doi=10.1002/j.2050-0416.1907.tb02205.x}}</ref>}}

}}According to Dutch chemical historian [[Robert Jacobus Forbes|Robert J. Forbes]], the word ''distillare'' (to drip off) when used by the Romans, e.g. [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], was "never used in our sense".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=R. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=1948 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=15 |orig-date=Reprinted 1970}}</ref>

~~{{Blockquote~~|text=Distillation had a broader meaning in ancient and medieval times because nearly all purification and separation operations were subsumed under the term ''distillation'', such as filtration, crystallization, extraction, sublimation, or mechanical pressing of oil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kockmann |first=Norbert |url=https://www.academia.edu/43754849 |title=Distillation: Fundamentals and Principles |publisher=Academic Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-12-386547-2 |editor-last=Andrzej |editor-first=Górak |pages=1–43 ~~|language=en~~ |chapter=History of Distillation |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-386547-2.00001-6 |editor-last2=Sorensen |editor-first2=Eva}}</ref>}}According to Dutch chemical historian [[Robert Jacobus Forbes|Robert J. Forbes]], the word ''distillare'' (to drip off) when used by the Romans, e.g. [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], was "never used in our sense".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=R. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=1948 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=15 |orig-date=Reprinted 1970}}</ref>

==== Aristotle ====

====Aristotle====

[[Aristotle]] knew that water condensing from evaporating seawater is fresh:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aristotle. |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000hdpl/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Meteorologica |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1952 |pages=2.3, 358b |language=Ancient Greek, English |translator-last=Lee |translator-first=H. D. P. |orig-date=c. 340 BC}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh, and the vapour does not, when it condenses, condense into sea water again.}}

{{Blockquote

| text = I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh, and the vapour does not, when it condenses, condense into sea water again.

}}

Letting seawater evaporate and condense into freshwater cannot be called "distillation" for distillation involves boiling, but the experiment may have been an important step towards distillation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=R. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=1948 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=14 |orig-date=Reprinted 1970}}</ref>

==== Alexandrian chemists ====

====Alexandrian chemists====

~~{{See also|Desalination#History|Distilled water#History}}~~

[[File:Zosimos distillation equipment.jpg|thumb|Distillation equipment used by the 3rd-century alchemist [[Zosimos of Panopolis]]<ref>{{cite book|page=203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=earQAAAAMAAJ|title=The Volatile Oils|author1=Gildemeister, E. |author2=Hoffman, Fr. |author3=translated by Edward Kremers |volume=1|location=New York|publisher=Wiley|year=1913}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 88]|title=The History of Science and Technology|author1=Bryan H. Bunch|author2=Alexander Hellemans|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2004|isbn=978-0-618-22123-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88}}</ref> (as imagined by the anonymous illustrator of the 15th-century [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]] manuscript [[Theodoros Pelecanos|''Codex Parisinus graecus'' ''2327'']])''.''<ref>[[Marcelin Berthelot|Berthelot, Marcelin]] (1887–1888) [https://archive.org/details/collectiondesanc01bert ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'']. 3 vol., Paris, p. 161</ref>]]

[[File:Zosimos distillation equipment.jpg|thumb|Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century alchemist [[Zosimos of Panopolis]],<ref>{{cite book|page=203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=earQAAAAMAAJ|title=The Volatile Oils|author1=Gildemeister, E. |author2=Hoffman, Fr. |author3=translated by Edward Kremers |volume=1|location=New York|publisher=Wiley|year=1913}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 88]|title=The History of Science and Technology|author1=Bryan H. Bunch|author2=Alexander Hellemans|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2004|isbn=978-0-618-22123-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88}}</ref> ~~from~~ the [[Byzantine Greek]] manuscript ''Parisinus ~~graces~~.''<ref>[[Marcelin Berthelot|Berthelot, Marcelin]] (1887–1888) [https://archive.org/details/collectiondesanc01bert ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'']. 3 vol., Paris, p. 161</ref>]]Early evidence of distillation has been found related to [[Alchemy|alchemists]] working in [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] in [[Roman Egypt]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|pp=57,89}}

~~Distilled water~~ has been in ~~use since at least {{Circa~~|~~200 CE}}, when~~ [[~~Alexander of Aphrodisias~~]] ~~described~~ the ~~process~~.<ref name="~~Taylor~~"~~>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=F. |year=1945 |title=The evolution of the still |journal=Annals of Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |page=185 |doi=10.1080/00033794500201451}}<~~/~~ref><ref~~>{{~~cite journal~~ |~~last~~=Berthelot |first=M. P. E. M. |date=1893 |title=The Discovery of Alcohol and Distillation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |url-status=live |journal=The Popular Science Monthly |volume=XLIII |pages=85–94 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129151553/https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |archive-date=29 November 2017 |df=dmy-all}}~~</ref> Work on distilling other liquids continued in early [[Byzantine Egypt]] under [[Zosimus of Panopolis]] in the 3rd century.~~

Early evidence of distillation has been found related to [[Alchemy|alchemists]] working in [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] in [[Roman Egypt]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|pp=57,89}}

~~=== Ancient India and China (1–500 CE) ===~~

Distilled water has been in use since at least {{Circa|200 CE}}, when [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] described the process.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=F. |year=1945 |title=The evolution of the still |journal=Annals of Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |page=185 |doi=10.1080/00033794500201451}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Berthelot |first=M. P. E. M. |date=1893 |title=The Discovery of Alcohol and Distillation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |url-status=live |journal=The Popular Science Monthly |volume=XLIII |pages=85–94 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129151553/https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |archive-date=29 November 2017 }}</ref> Work on distilling other liquids continued in early [[Byzantine Egypt]] under [[Zosimus of Panopolis]] in the 3rd century.

~~Distillation was practiced~~ in ~~the ancient [[Indian subcontinent]], which is evident from baked clay [[retort]]s and receivers found~~ at ~~[[Taxila]]~~, [[~~Shaikhan Dheri]], and [[Charsadda]] in [[Pakistan]~~] ~~and [[Rang Mahal, Sri Ganganagar|Rang Mahal~~]~~] in [[India]] dating to the early centuries of~~ the ~~[[Common Era]]~~.<ref>~~[[John Marshall (archaeologist)~~|~~John Marshall]], ''Taxila'', '''2''':[https://books.google.com/books?id~~=~~IOnUugEACAAJ&q~~=~~water-condensers&pg~~=~~PA420 420] {{Webarchive~~|~~url~~=~~https://web.archive.org/web/20221213050510/https://books.google.com/books?id~~=~~IOnUugEACAAJ&newbks~~=~~0&lpg~~=~~PP1&vq=water-condensers&pg~~=~~PA420~~ |~~date~~=~~13 December 2022~~ }}~~, 1951~~</ref><ref>Frank Raymond Allchin, "India: the ancient home of distillation?" ''Man'', New Series '''14''':1:55-63 (1979) [https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf full text] {{~~Webarchive~~|~~url~~=~~https://web.archive~~.~~org/web/20191220212010/https://www~~.~~samorini~~.~~it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation~~.~~pdf~~ |date=~~20 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>Javed Husain, "~~The ~~So-Called 'Distillery' at Shaikhan Dheri - A Case Study", ''Journal~~ of the Pakistan Historical Society'' '''41''':3:289-314 (Jul 1, 1993)</ref> [[Frank Raymond Allchin]] says these terracotta distill tubes were "made to imitate bamboo".<ref>Frank Raymond Allchin, "India: the ancient home of distillation?" ''Man'', New Series '''14''':1:55-63 (1979) [https://~~www~~.~~samorini~~.it/~~doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin~~-~~india-the-ancient~~-~~home-of-distillation.pdf full text] {{Webarchive|~~url=https://web.archive.org/web/~~20191220212010~~/https://~~www~~.~~samorini~~.it/~~doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of~~-~~distillation.pdf |~~date=~~20 December 2019~~ }}</ref> ~~These "~~[[~~Gandhara~~]] ~~stills" were only capable of producing very weak~~ [[~~liquor~~]]~~, as there was no efficient means of collecting~~ the ~~vapors at low heat~~.<ref name="habib">[[Irfan Habib|Habib, Irfan]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA55 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'']. [[Pearson Education]]. p. 55. {{ISBN|9788131727911}}</ref>

Distillation in China may have begun at the earliest during the [[Eastern Han]] dynasty (1st–2nd century CE).<ref name="Haw"/>

===Classical India and Ancient China===

Distillation was practiced in the ancient [[Indian subcontinent]], which is evident from baked clay [[retort]]s and receivers found at [[Taxila]], [[Shaikhan Dheri]], and [[Charsadda]] in [[Pakistan]] and [[Rang Mahal, Sri Ganganagar|Rang Mahal]] in [[India]] dating to the early centuries of the [[Common Era]].<ref>[[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]], ''Taxila'', '''2''':[https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&q=water-condensers&pg=PA420 420] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213050510/https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&newbks=0&lpg=PP1&vq=water-condensers&pg=PA420 |date=13 December 2022 }}, 1951</ref><ref name="allchin">{{cite journal|last=Allchin|first=Frank Raymond|title=India: The Ancient Home of Distillation?|journal=Man|volume=14|issue=1|date=1979|doi=10.2307/2801640|pages=55–63}}</ref><ref>Javed Husain, "The So-Called 'Distillery' at Shaikhan Dheri – A Case Study", ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society'' '''41''':3:289-314 (1 July 1993)</ref> [[Frank Raymond Allchin]] says these terracotta distillation tubes were "made to imitate bamboo".<ref name="allchin" /> These "[[Gandhara]] stills" were only capable of producing a very weak distillate, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.<ref name="habib">[[Irfan Habib|Habib, Irfan]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA55 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'']. [[Pearson Education]]. p. 55. {{ISBN|9788131727911}}</ref> Distillation in China may have begun at the earliest during the [[Eastern Han]] dynasty (1st–2nd century CE).<ref name="Haw" />

=== Islamic Golden Age ===

===Islamic Golden Age===

Medieval [[Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world|Muslim chemists]] such as ~~[[Jabir ibn Hayyan|Jābir ibn Ḥayyān]] (Latin: Geber, ninth century) and~~ [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|Abū Bakr al-Rāzī]] (Latin: Rhazes, {{circa|865–925}}) experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances. The [[fractional distillation]] of organic substances plays an important role in the works attributed to Jābir, such as in the [[Seventy Books|{{transliteration|ar|Kitāb al-Sabʿīn}}]] ('The Book of Seventy'), translated into Latin by [[Gerard of Cremona]] ({{Circa|1114–1187}}) under the title {{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)|year=1942–1943|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|isbn=9783487091150}} Vol. II, p. 5. On the attribution of the Latin translation to Gerard of Cremona, see {{cite journal|last1=Burnett|first1=Charles|year=2001|title=The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century|journal=Science in Context|volume=14|issue=1–2|pages=249–288|doi=10.1017/S0269889701000096|s2cid=143006568}} p. 280; {{cite journal|last1=Moureau|first1=Sébastien|year=2020|title=Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages|journal=Micrologus|volume=28|issue=|pages=87–141|hdl=2078.1/211340|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/211340}} pp. 106, 111.</ref> The Jabirian experiments with fractional distillation of animal and vegetable substances, and to a lesser degree also of mineral substances, is the main topic of the {{lang|la|De anima in arte alkimiae}}, an originally Arabic work falsely attributed to [[Avicenna]] that was translated into Latin and would go on to form the most important alchemical source for [[Roger Bacon]] ({{circa|1220–1292}}).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdLk3YPZiLEC&pg=PA35 |title=Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry |date=2000 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262082822 |editor1-last=Holmes |editor1-first=Frederic L. |editor1-link=Frederic L. Holmes |location=Cambridge |pages=35–54 |chapter=Alchemy, Assaying, and Experiment |author1-link=William R. Newman |editor2-last=Levere |editor2-first=Trevor H.}} p. 44.</ref>

Medieval [[Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world|Muslim chemists]] such as [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|Abū Bakr al-Rāzī]] (Latin: Rhazes, {{circa|865–925}}) and the anonymous chemists writing under the name of [[Jabir ibn Hayyan|Jābir ibn Ḥayyān]] (Latin: Geber, ninth century) experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances. The [[fractional distillation]] of organic substances plays an important role in the works attributed to Jābir, such as in the [[Seventy Books|{{transliteration|ar|Kitāb al-Sabʿīn}}]] ('The Book of Seventy'), translated into Latin by [[Gerard of Cremona]] ({{Circa|1114–1187}}) under the title {{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)|year=1942–1943|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|isbn=9783487091150}} Vol. II, p. 5. On the attribution of the Latin translation to Gerard of Cremona, see {{cite journal|last1=Burnett|first1=Charles|year=2001|title=The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century|journal=Science in Context|volume=14|issue=1–2|pages=249–288|doi=10.1017/S0269889701000096|s2cid=143006568}} p. 280; {{cite journal|last1=Moureau|first1=Sébastien|year=2020|title=Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages|journal=Micrologus|volume=28|issue=|pages=87–141|hdl=2078.1/211340|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/211340}} pp. 106, 111.</ref> The Jabirian experiments with fractional distillation of animal and vegetable substances, and to a lesser degree also of mineral substances, is the main topic of the {{lang|la|De anima in arte alkimiae}}, an originally Arabic work falsely attributed to [[Avicenna]] that was translated into Latin and would go on to form the most important alchemical source for [[Roger Bacon]] ({{circa|1220–1292}}).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdLk3YPZiLEC&pg=PA35 |title=Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry |date=2000 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262082822 |editor1-last=Holmes |editor1-first=Frederic L. |editor1-link=Frederic L. Holmes |location=Cambridge |pages=35–54 |chapter=Alchemy, Assaying, and Experiment |author1-link=William R. Newman |editor2-last=Levere |editor2-first=Trevor H.}} p. 44. On the {{lang|la|De anima in arte alkimiae}}, see further {{cite book|last1=Moureau|first1=Sébastien|date=2016|title=Le De anima alchimique du pseudo-Avicenne. Vol. 1: Étude. Vol. 2: Édition critique et traduction annotée|series=Micrologus Library|volume=76|location=Florence|publisher=SISMEL/Edizioni del Galluzzo|isbn=978-88-8450-716-7}}</ref>

The distillation of [[wine]] is attested in Arabic works attributed to [[Al-Kindi|al-Kindī]] ({{Circa|801–873 CE}}) and to [[Al-Farabi|al-Fārābī]] ({{Circa|872–950}}), and in the 28th book of [[Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrāwī]]'s (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) ''{{Lang|ar-latn|[[Al-Tasrif|Kitāb al-Taṣrīf]]}}'' (later translated into Latin as ''{{Lang|la|Liber servatoris}}'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=al-Hassan|first1=Ahmad Y.|author-link=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|year=2009|chapter=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources from the 8th Century|title=Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry|location=Hildesheim|publisher=Georg Olms Verlag|pages=283–298}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html |date=29 December 2015 }}); cf. {{cite book|last1=Berthelot|first1=Marcellin|author1-link=Marcellin Berthelot|last2=Houdas|first2=Octave V.|year=1893|title=La Chimie au Moyen Âge|volume=I–III|location=Paris|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} vol. I, pp. 141, 143.</ref> In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of ''{{Lang|la|aqua ardens}}'' ("burning water", i.e., ethanol) by distilling wine with [[salt]] started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.<ref>{{cite book|last=Multhauf|first=Robert P.|author-link=Robert P. Multhauf|year=1966|title=The Origins of Chemistry|location=London|publisher=Oldbourne|isbn=9782881245947}} pp. 204–206.</ref> The works of [[Taddeo Alderotti]] (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holmyard |first1=Eric John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&pg=PA51 |title=Alchemy |date=1957 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-486-26298-7 |location=Harmondsworth |author1-link=Eric John Holmyard}} pp. 51–52.</ref>

=== Medieval China ===

===Medieval China===

The distillation of beverages began in the [[Southern Song dynasty|Southern Song]] (10th–13th century) and [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] (12th–13th century) dynasties, according to archaeological evidence.<ref name="Haw">{{cite book |author=Haw, Stephen G. |title=Marco Polo in China |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-27542-7 |pages=147–148 |chapter=Wine, women and poison |quote=The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty ... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA148}}</ref> A still was found in an archaeological site in Qinglong, [[Hebei]] province, China, dating back to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were common during the [[Yuan dynasty]] (13th–14th century).<ref name="Haw" />

=== Modern era ===

===Modern era===

In 1500, German alchemist [[Hieronymus Brunschwig]] published ''{{Lang|la|[[Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus]]}}'' (''The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients''),<ref>{{cite book |first=Hieronymus |last=Braunschweig |author-link=Hieronymus Braunschweig |date=1500 |title=Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus |trans-title=The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients|language=de |url=https://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00031146&pimage=7&v=2p&nav=&l=de}}</ref> the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. Right after that, in 1518, the oldest surviving distillery in Europe, [[~~The~~ Green Tree Distillery]], was founded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018~~-12-28~~ |title=These Are 5 Oldest Companies In Europe. Ever Heard Of Any Of Them? |url=https://www.boredpanda.com/these-are-5-oldest-companies-in-europe-even-heard-of-any-of-them/ |access-date=2024~~-07-28~~ |website=Bored Panda ~~|language=en-US~~}}</ref>

In 1500, German alchemist [[Hieronymus Brunschwig]] published ''{{Lang|la|[[Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus]]}}'' (''The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients''),<ref>{{cite book |first=Hieronymus |last=Braunschweig |author-link=Hieronymus Braunschweig |date=1500 |title=Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus |trans-title=The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients|language=de |url=https://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00031146&pimage=7&v=2p&nav=&l=de}}</ref> the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. Right after that, in 1518, the oldest surviving distillery in Europe, [[the Green Tree Distillery]], was founded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2018 |title=These Are 5 Oldest Companies in Europe. Ever Heard of Any of Them? |url=https://www.boredpanda.com/these-are-5-oldest-companies-in-europe-even-heard-of-any-of-them/ |access-date=28 July 2024 |website=Bored Panda}}</ref>

In 1651, [[John French (doctor)|John French]] published ''The Art of Distillation'',<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=French |author-link=John French (doctor) |date=1651 |title=The Art of Distillation |publisher=Richard Cotes |location=London |url=http://www.levity.com/alchemy/jfren_ar.html}}</ref> the first major English compendium on the practice, but it has been claimed<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ie50318a015|year=1936|title=Distillation|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|volume=28|issue=6|pages=677}}</ref> that much of it derives from Brunschwig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.

[[File:Hieronymus Brunschwig Liber de arte Distillandi CHF AQ13x3.jpg|thumb|Hieronymus Brunschwig's ''Liber de arte Distillandi de Compositis'' (Strassburg, 1512) [https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/the-alchemical-quest Science History Institute]]]

[[File:My retort.jpg|thumb|A [[retort]]]]

[[File:My retort.jpg|thumb|A retort]]

[[File:Distillation by Retort.png|thumb|Distillation]]

[[File:UkrainianVodkaStill.jpg|thumb|Old Ukrainian vodka still]]

[[File:Dorf Lore - Schnaps-Destillation.jpg|thumb|Simple liqueur distillation in [[East Timor]]]]

As [[alchemy]] evolved into the science of [[chemistry]], ~~vessels called~~ [[retort]]s became used for distillations. Both [[alembic]]s and retorts are ~~forms of~~ [[Laboratory glassware|~~glassware~~]] with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle to act as air-cooled ~~[[Condenser (heat transfer)|~~condensers]] to [[Condensation|condense]] the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were ~~invented~~. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Sealing Technique |url=http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104173651/http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-date=2012~~-11-04~~ |access-date= |website=copper-alembic}}</ref> These alembics often ~~featured~~ a cooling system around the beak, using cold water, for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called [[pot still]]s. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the ~~elaboration~~ of some fine ~~alcohols, such as~~ [[cognac (drink)|cognac]], [[~~Scotch~~ whisky]], [[~~Irish~~ whiskey]], [[tequila]], [[rum]], [[cachaça]], and some [[vodka]]s. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by [[Rum-runner|bootleggers]] in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for use in the domestic production<ref>[http://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html Traditional Alembic Pot Still] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121163501/https://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html |date=21 November 2006 }}, accessed 16 November 2006.</ref> of flower water or [[essential oils]].

As [[alchemy]] evolved into the science of [[chemistry]], [[retort]]s became used for distillations. Both [[alembic]]s and retorts are [[Laboratory glassware|glass vessels]] with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle to act as air-cooled condensers to [[Condensation|condense]] the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were used. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance, a dough made of rye flour.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Sealing Technique |url=http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104173651/http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-date=4 November 2012 |access-date= |website=copper-alembic}}</ref> These alembics often used a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called [[pot still]]s. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the production of some fine alcoholic beverages including [[cognac (drink)|cognac]], [[whisky]] and [[whiskey]], [[tequila]], [[rum]], [[cachaça]], and some [[vodka]]s. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by [[Rum-runner|bootleggers]] in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for use in the domestic production<ref>[http://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html Traditional Alembic Pot Still] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121163501/https://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html |date=21 November 2006 }}, accessed 16 November 2006.</ref> of flower water or [[essential oils]].

Early forms of distillation involved batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists reportedly carried out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.<ref name=Othmer>Othmer, D. F. (1982) "Distillation – Some Steps in its Development", in W. F. Furter (ed) ''A Century of Chemical Engineering''. {{ISBN|0-306-40895-3}}</ref>

Early forms of distillation involved batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists reportedly carried out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.<ref name="Othmer">Othmer, D. F. (1982) "Distillation – Some Steps in its Development", in W. F. Furter (ed) ''A Century of Chemical Engineering''. {{ISBN|0-306-40895-3}}</ref>

In the early 19th century, the basics of modern techniques, including pre-heating and [[reflux]], were developed.<ref name=Othmer/> In 1822, Anthony Perrier developed one of the first continuous stills, and ~~then,~~ in 1826, Robert Stein improved that design to make his [[~~column~~ still|patent still]]. In 1830, [[Aeneas Coffey]] ~~got~~ a patent for improving the design ~~even~~ further.<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=A. |inventor-last=Coffey |inventor-link=Aeneas Coffey |title=Apparatus for Brewing and Distilling |country-code=GB |patent-number=5974 |publication-date=5 August 1830 |issue-date=5 February 1831}}; [http://www.kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 image] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204221819/http://kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 |date=4 February 2017 }}</ref> Coffey's continuous still may be regarded as the [[archetype]] of modern petrochemical units. The French engineer Armand Savalle developed his steam regulator around 1846.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|p=323}} In 1877, [[Ernest Solvay]] was granted a U.S. ~~Patent~~ for a tray column for [[ammonia]] distillation,<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=Ernest |inventor-last=Solvay |inventor-link=Ernest Solvay |country-code=US |patent-number=198699 |title=Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda Manufacture |publication-date=2 June 1876 |issue-date=25 December 1877}}</ref> ~~and the same and subsequent years saw~~ developments ~~in this theme for~~ oils and spirits.

In the early 19th century, the basics of modern techniques, including pre-heating and [[reflux]], were developed.<ref name="Othmer" /> In 1822 Anthony Perrier developed one of the first continuous stills, and in 1826 Robert Stein improved that design to make his [[Column still|patent still]]. In 1830, [[Aeneas Coffey]] was granted a [[patent]] for improving the design further.<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=A. |inventor-last=Coffey |inventor-link=Aeneas Coffey |title=Apparatus for Brewing and Distilling |country-code=GB |patent-number=5974 |publication-date=5 August 1830 |issue-date=5 February 1831}}; [http://www.kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 image] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204221819/http://kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 |date=4 February 2017 }}</ref> Coffey's continuous still may be regarded as the [[archetype]] of modern petrochemical units. The French engineer Armand Savalle developed his steam regulator around 1846.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|p=323}} In 1877, [[Ernest Solvay]] was granted a U.S. patent for a tray column for [[ammonia]] distillation;<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=Ernest |inventor-last=Solvay |inventor-link=Ernest Solvay |country-code=US |patent-number=198699 |title=Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda Manufacture |publication-date=2 June 1876 |issue-date=25 December 1877}}</ref> from that year there were further developments on distilling oils and spirits.

With the emergence of [[chemical engineering]] as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing [[petroleum]] industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods, such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]] by [[Ernest Thiele]] and the [[Fenske equation]]. The first industrial plant in the United States to use distillation as a means of ~~ocean desalination~~ opened in [[Freeport, Texas]] in 1961 with the hope of bringing [[water security]] to the region.<ref name="Transcript">{{cite web |title=Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom |website=Science History Institute|date=March ~~19,~~ 2019 |access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref>

With the emergence of [[chemical engineering]] as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing [[petroleum]] industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods, such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]] by [[Ernest Thiele]], and the [[Fenske equation]]. The first industrial plant in the United States to use distillation as a means of desalinating seawater opened in [[Freeport, Texas]] in 1961 with the hope of bringing [[water security]] to the region.<ref name="Transcript">{{cite web |title=Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom |website=Science History Institute|date=19 March 2019 |access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref>

The availability of powerful computers ~~has allowed direct~~ [[~~computer~~ simulation]]~~s of distillation columns~~.

The availability of powerful computers enabled distillation columns to be [[Computer simulation|simulated numerically]].

==Applications==

Line 85:

Line 95:

The [[boiling point]] of a liquid is the temperature at which the [[vapor pressure]] of the liquid equals the pressure around the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the [[normal boiling point]], where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient [[atmospheric pressure]].

It is a misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure, allowing the vapors of each component to collect separately and purely~~. However,~~ this does not occur, even in an ~~idealized~~ system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by [[Raoult's law]] and [[Dalton's law]] and assume that [[Vapor–liquid equilibrium|vapor–liquid equilibria]] are attained.

It is a misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure, allowing the vapors of each component to collect separately and purely: this does not occur, even in an ideal system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by [[Raoult's law|Raoult]] and [[Dalton's law]]s, and assume that [[Vapor–liquid equilibrium|vapor–liquid equilibria]] are attained.

Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on 1) the vapor pressure of each chemical component in the solution and 2) the fraction of solution each component makes up, ~~a.k.a.~~ the [[mole fraction]]. This law applies to [[ideal solution]]s, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are the same as or very similar to pure solutions.

Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on 1) the vapor pressure of each chemical component in the solution and 2) the fraction of solution each component makes up, the [[mole fraction]]. This law applies to [[ideal solution]]s, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are the same as or very similar to pure solutions.

Dalton's law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, ~~[[boiling]] occurs~~ and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. A mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure when the components are mutually soluble. A mixture of constant composition does not have multiple boiling points.

Dalton's law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, it boils, and the liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. A mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure when the components are mutually soluble. A mixture of constant composition does not have multiple boiling points.

An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and, thus, are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily vaporize also, albeit at a lower concentration in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch vaporizes, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more ~~lights~~ and boils at lower temperatures. Therefore, starting from a given mixture, it appears to have a boiling range instead of a boiling point, although this is because its composition changes: each intermediate mixture has its own, singular boiling point.

An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At the boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and, thus, are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily vaporize also, albeit at a lower concentration in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch vaporizes, which changes its composition; in fractionation, the liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more light components and boils at lower temperatures. Therefore, starting from a given mixture, it appears to have a boiling range instead of a boiling point, although this is because its composition changes: each intermediate mixture has its own, singular boiling point.

The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as [[benzene]] and [[toluene]]. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an [[azeotrope]], ~~which is when~~ the vapor ~~phase~~ and liquid ~~phase contain~~ the same composition. Although there are [[~~computational~~ chemistry|computational methods]] ~~that can be used~~ to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate [[vapor–liquid equilibrium]] data is by measurement.

The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as [[benzene]] and [[toluene]]. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an [[azeotrope]], with the vapor and liquid phases having the same composition. Although there are [[Computational chemistry|computational methods]] to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate [[vapor–liquid equilibrium]] data is by measurement.

It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero [[partial pressure]]. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further [[Separation of chemicals|chemical separation]] ~~must be applied~~. When a binary mixture is vaporized and the other component, e.g., a salt, has ~~zero~~ partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler.

It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero [[partial pressure]]. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further [[Separation of chemicals|chemical separation]] is required. When a binary mixture is vaporized and the other component, e.g., a salt, has negligible partial pressure, zero for practical purposes, the process is simpler.

===Batch or differential distillation===

[[File:BatchDistill.svg|thumb|left|A batch still showing the separation of A and B.]]

~~[[File:BatchDistill.svg|thumb|left|A batch still showing the separation of A and B.]]~~

Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances, A and B, with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point, in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid that contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid. The ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This, in turn, means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e., more enriched in B than in the starting liquid).

The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio of A : B in the distillate.

If the difference in vapour pressure between the two components A and B is large – generally expressed as the difference in boiling points – the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.

If the difference in vapour pressure between the two components A and B is large – generally expressed as the difference in boiling points – the mixture at the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.

===Continuous distillation===

Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams occur over time during the operation. Continuous distillation produces a minimum of two output fractions, including at least one [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor and then condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.

Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process, and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams occur over time during the operation. Continuous distillation produces a minimum of two output fractions, including at least one [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor and then condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.

Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a [[steady state]] for an arbitrary amount of time. For any source material of specific composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages, in practice determined by the number of trays or the height of packing. Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor–liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.

===General improvements===

Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a [[fractionating column]] on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, ~~all~~ with ~~their~~ own vapor–liquid equilibrium.

Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a [[fractionating column]] on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, each with its own vapor–liquid equilibrium.

There are differences between laboratory-~~scale~~ and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include:

There are differences between laboratory- and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in order of increasing efficiency) include:

* [[Condenser (laboratory)#Air condenser|Air condenser]]

* [[Vigreux column]] (usually laboratory scale only)

Line 123:

Line 133:

==Laboratory procedures==

Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a ''[[still]]'', consists at a minimum of a reboiler or ''pot'' in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated [[gas|vapor]] is cooled back to the liquid [[phase (matter)|state]], and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also [[:Category:Distillation|distillation types]]).

Laboratory-scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a ''[[still]]'', consists at a minimum of a reboiler or ''pot'' in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated [[gas|vapor]] is cooled back to the liquid [[phase (matter)|state]], and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory-scale techniques for distillation exist (see also [[Category:Distillation|distillation types]]).

A completely sealed distillation apparatus could experience extreme and rapidly varying internal pressure, which could cause it to burst open at the joints. Therefore, some path is usually left open (for instance, at the receiving flask) to allow the internal pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, a [[vacuum pump]] may be used to keep the apparatus at a lower than atmospheric pressure. If the substances involved are air- or moisture-sensitive, the connection to the atmosphere can be made through one or more [[drying tube]]s packed with materials that scavenge the undesired air components, or through [[bubbler]]s that provide a movable liquid barrier. Finally, the entry of undesired air components can be prevented by pumping a low but steady flow of suitable inert gas, like [[nitrogen]], into the apparatus.

===Simple distillation===

[[File:Simple distillation apparatus.svg|300 px|thumb|right|Schematic of a simple distillation setup.]]

[[File:Simple distillation apparatus.svg|300 px|thumb|right|Schematic of a simple distillation setup]]

In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure. That concentration follows [[Raoult's law]].

In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure, but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure. That concentration follows [[Raoult's law]].

As a result, simple distillation is effective only when the liquid boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C)<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080908000656/http://www.iupac.org/didac/Didac%20Eng/Didac05/Content/ST07.htm ST07 Separation of liquid–liquid mixtures (solutions)], DIDAC by [[IUPAC]]</ref> or when separating liquids from non-volatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually different enough that the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.

Line 137:

Line 148:

===Fractional distillation===

For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that [[Raoult's law]] must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.<ref name=Perry/>

For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that [[Raoult's law]] must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.<ref name="Perry" />

As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the [[fractionating column]]. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors is determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a ''[[theoretical plate]]'') will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070903202418/http://wulfenite.fandm.edu/labtech/fractdistill.htm Fractional Distillation]. fandm.edu</ref> In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; ''theoretical plate'' is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.

Line 145:

Line 157:

===Steam distillation===

Like [[vacuum distillation]], steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|pages=151–153}} The temperature of the steam is easier to control than the surface of a [[heating element]] and allows a high rate of heat transfer without heating at a very high temperature. This process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.

Line 152:

Line 165:

[[File:perkin triangle distillation apparatus.svg|thumb|Perkin triangle distillation setup

{{#invoke:list|horizontal_ordered

| Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules

| Still pot

| Fractionating column

| Thermometer/Boiling point temperature

| Teflon tap 1

| Cold finger

| Cooling water out

| Cooling water in

| Teflon tap 2

| Vacuum/gas inlet

| Teflon tap 3

| Still receiver

}}]]

===Vacuum distillation===

Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the [[rotary evaporator]].

Line 175:

Line 189:

[[Molecular distillation]] is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 [[torr]]. 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above [[Hard vacuum|high vacuum]], where fluids are in the [[free molecular flow]] regime, i.e., the [[mean free path]] of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.

=== Short path distillation ===

===Short-path distillation===

[[File:short path distillation apparatus.svg|thumb|right|Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path;

{{#invoke:list|horizontal_ordered

| style=display:inline;

| list_style=display:inline;

| Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules

| Cold finger – bent to direct condensate

| Cooling water out

| cooling water in

| Vacuum/gas inlet

| Distillate flask/distillate.

}}]]

Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|page=150}} A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus.

Short-path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|page=150}} A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus.

While classic short-path distillation systems in the laboratory work with a static, heated flask in which the material evaporates as a pool of liquid, there are also systems that combine the advantages of thin-film distillation with those of short-path distillation. In this case, it is a thin-film evaporator with an internal rather than an external condenser.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GmbH |first=U. I. C. |title=Short Path Distillators |url=http://www.uic-gmbh.de/en/products/short-path-distillators |access-date=6 February 2026 |website=uic-gmbh.de}}</ref>

===Air-sensitive vacuum distillation===

Line 195:

Line 213:

The Perkin triangle has means via a series of glass or [[Polytetrafluoroethylene|Teflon]] taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the [[still]], without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of [[reflux]]. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as [[nitrogen]] or [[argon]]) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.

~~===Zone distillation===~~

Zone distillation is the distillation analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization, with the separation factor α of distillation used in place of the crystallization distribution coefficient k.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Зонная дистилляция: новый метод рафинирования|trans-title=Zone distillation: a new method of refining|url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/111613 |journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=19 |pages=24–26 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Zone distillation: justification |url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/79912|journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2014 |volume=1 |issue=20 |pages=64–65 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Разработка перспективных схем зонной дистилляции|trans-title=Design of advanced processes of zone distillation |journal=Perspectivnye Materialy |year=2014 |number=7 |pages=68–72 |language=ru|url=http://j-pm.imet-db.ru/?archive&a=1573}}</ref>

Zone distillation is a distillation process in a long container with partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area. The process is worked in theory. When zone heater is moving from the top to the bottom of the container then solid condensate with irregular impurity distribution is forming. Then most pure part of the condensate may be extracted as product. The process may be iterated many times by moving (without turnover) the received condensate to the bottom part of the container on the place of refined matter. The irregular impurity distribution in the condensate (that is efficiency of purification) increases with the number of iterations.

Zone distillation is the distillation analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization – with ~~the replacement of the distribution co-efficient k of crystallization - for~~ the separation factor α of distillation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Зонная дистилляция: новый метод рафинирования|trans-title=Zone distillation: a new method of refining|url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/111613 |journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=19 |pages=24–26 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Zone distillation: justification |url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/79912|journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2014 |volume=1 |issue=20 |pages=64–65 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Разработка перспективных схем зонной дистилляции|trans-title=Design of advanced processes of zone distillation |journal=Perspectivnye Materialy |year=2014 |number=7 |pages=68–72 |language=ru|url=http://j-pm.imet-db.ru/?archive&a=1573}}</ref>

===Closed-system vacuum distillation (cryovap)===

Line 213:

Line 229:

The unit process of [[evaporation]] may also be called "distillation":

* In [[rotary evaporation]] a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk [[solvent]]s from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a [[aspirator (pump)|water aspirator]] or a [[membrane pump]].

* In a [[Kugelrohr apparatus]] a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.

* In a [[Kugelrohr|Kugelrohr apparatus]] a short-path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.

Other uses:

Line 222:

Line 238:

==Azeotropic process==

Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail non-ideal mixtures, where [[Raoult's law]] does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling '''[[azeotrope]]''' which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not result in separation. For example, 95.6% [[ethanol]] (by mass) in water forms an azeotrope at 78.1 °C.

Line 253:

Line 270:

[[File:Colonne distillazione.jpg|right|thumb|Typical industrial distillation towers]]

Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in [[oil refinery|petroleum refineries]], [[petrochemical]] and [[chemical plant]]s and [[natural gas processing]] plants.

To control and optimize such industrial distillation, a standardized laboratory method, ASTM D86, is established. This test method extends to the atmospheric distillation of petroleum products using a laboratory batch distillation unit to quantitatively determine the boiling range characteristics of petroleum products.

Industrial distillation<ref name=Perry>{{cite book|author1=Perry, Robert H. |author2=Green, Don W.|title=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook|edition=6th| publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1984|isbn=978-0-07-049479-4|title-link=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook}}</ref><ref name=Kister>{{cite book|author=Kister, Henry Z.|title=Distillation Design|edition=1st |publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1992|isbn=978-0-07-034909-4|title-link=Distillation Design}}</ref> is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about {{convert|0.65|to|16|m}} and heights ranging from about {{convert|6|to|90|m}} or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling [[crude oil]], liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different ''fractions'' or products having different [[boiling points]] or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.

Industrial distillation<ref name="Perry">{{cite book|author1=Perry, Robert H. |author2=Green, Don W.|title=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook|edition=6th| publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1984|isbn=978-0-07-049479-4|title-link=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook}}</ref><ref name="Kister">{{cite book|author=Kister, Henry Z.|title=Distillation Design|edition=1st |publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1992|isbn=978-0-07-034909-4|title-link=Distillation Design}}</ref> is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about {{convert|0.65|to|16|m}} and heights ranging from about {{convert|6|to|90|m}} or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling [[crude oil]], liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different ''fractions'' or products having different [[boiling points]] or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.

[[File:Continuous Binary Fractional Distillation.PNG|left|thumb|Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower]]

Industrial towers use [[reflux]] to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of [[theoretical plate]]s, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required. [[Chemical engineer]]s must choose what combination of reflux rate and number of plates is both economically and physically feasible for the products purified in the distillation column.

Line 265:

Line 284:

[[File:Bubble Cap Trays.PNG|frame|right|Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps]]

Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]]<ref name=Perry/><ref name=SeaderHenley>{{cite book|author1=Seader, J. D. |author2=Henley, Ernest J.|title=Separation Process Principles|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-0-471-58626-5}}</ref> or the [[Fenske equation]]<ref name=Perry/> can be used. For a multi-component feed, [[simulation]] models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor–liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient [[equilibrium stage]]. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages. A variety of models have been postulated to estimate tray efficiencies.

Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]]<ref name="Perry" /><ref name="SeaderHenley">{{cite book|author1=Seader, J. D. |author2=Henley, Ernest J.|title=Separation Process Principles|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-0-471-58626-5}}</ref> or the [[Fenske equation]]<ref name="Perry" /> can be used. For a multi-component feed, [[simulation]] models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor–liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient [[equilibrium stage]]. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages. A variety of models have been postulated to estimate tray efficiencies.

In modern industrial uses, a packing material is used in the column instead of trays when low pressure drops across the column are required. Other factors that favor packing are: vacuum systems, smaller diameter columns, corrosive systems, systems prone to foaming, systems requiring low liquid holdup, and batch distillation. Conversely, factors that favor [[plate column]]s are: presence of solids in feed, high liquid rates, large column diameters, complex columns, columns with wide feed composition variation, columns with a chemical reaction, absorption columns, columns limited by foundation weight tolerance, low liquid rate, large turn-down ratio and those processes subject to process surges.

[[File:Vacuum Column.jpg|thumb|left|183px|Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column<ref>[http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html Energy Institute website page] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012072758/http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html |date=12 October 2007 }}. Resources.schoolscience.co.uk. Retrieved on 2014~~-04-20~~.</ref>]]

[[File:Vacuum Column.jpg|thumb|left|183px|Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column<ref>[http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html Energy Institute website page] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012072758/http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html |date=12 October 2007 }}. Resources.schoolscience.co.uk. Retrieved on 20 April 2014.</ref>]]

This packing material can either be random or dumped packing ({{convert|1|-|3|in|order=flip}} wide) such as [[Raschig ring]]s or [[structured packing|structured sheet metal]]. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where [[mass transfer]] takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor–liquid equilibrium, the vapor–liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both these factors affect packing performance.

Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of [[Theoretical plate|theoretical stages]] required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The [[Theoretical plate|height equivalent to a theoretical plate]] (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.<ref name=Moore>Moore, F., Rukovena, F. (August 1987) ''Random Packing, Vapor and Liquid Distribution: Liquid and gas distribution in commercial packed towers'', Chemical Plants & Processing, Edition Europe, pp. 11–15</ref><ref name=Spiegel>{{cite journal|last1=Spiegel|first1=L|title=A new method to assess liquid distributor quality|journal=Chemical Engineering and Processing|volume=45|page=1011|year=2006|doi=10.1016/j.cep.2006.05.003|issue=11|bibcode=2006CEPPI..45.1011S}}</ref> Considerable work has been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).<ref name=Kunesh>{{cite journal|last1=Kunesh|first1=John G.|last2=Lahm|first2=Lawrence|last3=Yanagi|first3=Takashi|title=Commercial scale experiments that provide insight on packed tower distributors|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research|volume=26|page=1845|year=1987|doi=10.1021/ie00069a021|issue=9}}</ref>

Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of [[Theoretical plate|theoretical stages]] required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The [[Theoretical plate|height equivalent to a theoretical plate]] (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.<ref name="Moore">Moore, F., Rukovena, F. (August 1987) ''Random Packing, Vapor and Liquid Distribution: Liquid and gas distribution in commercial packed towers'', Chemical Plants & Processing, Edition Europe, pp. 11–15</ref><ref name="Spiegel">{{cite journal|last1=Spiegel|first1=L|title=A new method to assess liquid distributor quality|journal=Chemical Engineering and Processing|volume=45|page=1011|year=2006|doi=10.1016/j.cep.2006.05.003|issue=11|bibcode=2006CEPPI..45.1011S}}</ref> Considerable work has been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).<ref name="Kunesh">{{cite journal|last1=Kunesh|first1=John G.|last2=Lahm|first2=Lawrence|last3=Yanagi|first3=Takashi|title=Commercial scale experiments that provide insight on packed tower distributors|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research|volume=26|page=1845|year=1987|doi=10.1021/ie00069a021|issue=9}}</ref>

===Multi-effect distillation===

Line 281:

Line 301:

==In food processing==

===Beverages===

[[Carbohydrate]]-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as [[whiskey]] and [[rum]] are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. Some of these beverages are then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more flavor compounds and characteristic flavors.

[[Carbohydrate]]-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as [[whiskey]] and [[rum]] are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. Some of these beverages are then stored in wooden barrels or other containers from which they acquire more flavor compounds and characteristic flavors.

==Gallery==

Line 296:

Line 315:

</gallery>

== See also ==

==See also==

* [[Atmospheric distillation of crude oil]]

* [[Clyssus]]

Line 307:

Line 326:

==References==

{{Reflist|30em|refs=

{{Reflist|30em|refs=<ref name="Harwood_Moody">{{cite Q|Q107313989|first1=Laurence M. |last1=Harwood |first2=Christopher J. | last2=Moody| url=https://archive.org/details/experimentalorga00harw | url-access=registration | access-date=22 June 2021 | via = [[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite Q|Q107312970|last1=Forbes| first1=Robert J.|author-link1 = Robert Jacobus Forbes | via = [[Google Books]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Harwood_Moody">{{cite Q|Q107313989|first1=Laurence M. |last1=Harwood |first2=Christopher J. | last2=Moody| url=https://archive.org/details/experimentalorga00harw | url-access=registration | access-date=2021~~-06-22~~ | via = [[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Forbes">{{cite Q|Q107312970|last1=Forbes| first1=Robert J.|author-link1 = Robert Jacobus Forbes | via = [[Google Books]]}}</ref>

}}

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{short description|Method of separating mixtures}}
 {{redirect-several|dab=no|Distillation (disambiguation)|Distiller (disambiguation)|Distillery (disambiguation)|Distill (album){{!}}''Distill'' (album)|Distill (journal){{!}}''Distill'' (journal)|Distillate (motor fuel)}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
 [[File:Simple distillation apparatus.svg|thumb|upright|300px|'''Laboratory model of a still.'''<br /><br />'''1:''' The heat source to boil the mixture<br />'''2:''' round-bottom flask containing the mixture to be boiled<br />'''3:''' the head of the still<br />'''4:''' mixture boiling-point thermometer<br />'''5:''' the condenser of the still<br />'''6:''' the cooling-water inlet of the condenser<br />'''7:''' the cooling-water outlet of the condenser<br />'''8:''' the distillate-receiving flask<br />'''9:''' vacuum pump and gas inlet<br />'''10:''' the receiver of the still<br />'''11:''' the heat control for heating the mixture<br />'''12:''' stirring mechanism speed control<br />'''13:''' stirring mechanism and heating plate<br />'''14:''' heating bath (oil/sand) for the flask<br />'''15:''' the stirring mechanism (not shown, e.g. [[boiling chip]]s or mechanical stirring machine)<br />'''16:''' the distillate-cooling water bath.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|pages=141–143}}]]
-'''Distillation''', also '''classical distillation''', is the process of [[separation process|separating]] the component substances of a liquid [[mixture]] of two or more chemically discrete substances; the separation process is realized by way of the selective [[boiling]] of the mixture<!--please do not change this to evaporation: it is not the same thing--> and the [[condensation]] of the vapors in a [[still]].
+'''Distillation''', also '''classical distillation''', is the process of [[separation process|separating]] the component substances of a liquid [[mixture]] of two or more chemically discrete substances by selective [[boiling]] of the mixture<!--please do not change this to evaporation: it is not the same thing--> and the [[condensation]] of the vapors in a [[still]].
-Distillation can operate over a wide range of pressures from 0.14 [[Bar (unit)|bar]] (e.g., [[ethylbenzene]]/[[styrene]]) to nearly 21 bar (e.g.,[[propylene]]/[[propane]]) and is capable of separating feeds with high volumetric flowrates and various components that cover a range of relative volatilities from only 1.17 ([[O-Xylene|o-xylene]]/[[m-xylene]]) to 81.2 (water/[[ethylene glycol]]).<ref>J. D. Seader, E. J. Henley and D. K. Roper, Separation Process Principles, Wiley, 3rd edn, 2011.</ref> Distillation provides a convenient and time-tested solution to separate a diversity of chemicals in a continuous manner with high purity. However, distillation has an enormous environmental footprint, resulting in the consumption of approximately 25% of all industrial energy use.<ref>D. S. Sholl and R. P. Lively, Nature, 2016, 532, 435–437.</ref> The key issue is that distillation operates based on phase changes, and this separation mechanism requires vast energy inputs.
+Distillation can operate over a wide range of pressures from 0.14 [[Bar (unit)|bar]] (e.g., [[ethylbenzene]]/[[styrene]]) to nearly 21 bar (e.g., [[propylene]]/[[propane]]) and is capable of separating feeds with high volumetric flowrates and various components that cover a range of relative volatilities from only 1.17 ([[O-Xylene|o-xylene]]/[[m-xylene]]) to 81.2 (water/[[ethylene glycol]]).<ref>J. D. Seader, E. J. Henley and D. K. Roper, Separation Process Principles, Wiley, 3rd edn, 2011.</ref> Distillation provides a convenient and time-tested solution to separate a diversity of chemicals in a continuous manner with high purity. However, distillation has an enormous environmental footprint, resulting in the consumption of approximately 25% of all industrial energy use.<ref>D. S. Sholl and R. P. Lively, Nature, 2016, 532, 435–437.</ref> The key issue is that distillation operates based on phase changes, and this separation mechanism requires vast energy inputs.
-[[Dry distillation]] ([[thermolysis]] and [[pyrolysis]]) is the heating of solid materials to produce gases that condense either into [[fluid]] products or into solid products. The term ''dry distillation'' includes the separation processes of [[destructive distillation]] and of [[Cracking (chemistry)|chemical cracking]], breaking down large [[hydrocarbon]] molecules into smaller hydrocarbon molecules. Moreover, a partial distillation results in partial separations of the mixture's components, which process yields nearly-pure components; partial distillation also realizes partial separations of the mixture to increase the concentrations of selected components. In either method, the separation process of distillation exploits the differences in the [[relative volatility]] of the component substances of the heated mixture.
+[[Dry distillation]] ([[thermolysis]] and [[pyrolysis]]) is the heating of solid materials to produce gases that condense either into [[fluid]] products or into solid products. The term ''dry distillation'' includes the separation processes of [[destructive distillation]] and of [[Cracking (chemistry)|chemical cracking]], breaking down large [[hydrocarbon]] molecules into smaller hydrocarbon molecules. Moreover, a partial distillation results in partial separations of the mixture's components, which process yields nearly pure components; partial distillation also realizes partial separations of the mixture to increase the concentrations of selected components. In either method, the separation process of distillation exploits the differences in the [[relative volatility]] of the component substances of the heated mixture.
-In the industrial applications of classical distillation, the term ''distillation'' is used as a [[unit operation|unit of operation]] that identifies and denotes a process of physical separation, not a [[chemical reaction]]; thus an industrial installation that produces [[liquor|distilled beverages]], is a distillery of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]]. These are some applications of the chemical separation process that is distillation:
+In the industrial applications of classical distillation, the term ''distillation'' is used as a [[unit operation|unit of operation]] that identifies and denotes a process of physical separation, not a [[chemical reaction]]; thus an industrial installation that produces [[liquor|distilled beverages]], is a distillery of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]]. These are some applications of the distillation process:
 * Distilling [[Fermentation in food processing|fermented]] products to yield alcoholic beverages with a high content by volume of [[Ethanol|ethyl alcohol]].
 * [[Desalination]] to produce potable water and for medico-industrial applications.
 * [[Crude oil stabilisation]], a partial distillation to reduce the vapor pressure of crude oil, which thus is safe to store and to transport, and thereby reduces the volume of atmospheric emissions of volatile [[hydrocarbon]]s.
-* [[Fractional distillation]] used in the midstream operations of an [[oil refinery]] for producing [[fuel]]s and chemical [[raw material]]s for livestock feed.<ref>Schaschke, C., 2014. A Dictionary of Chemical Engineering. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>2019. Distillation: The Historical Symbol of Chemical Engineering. The University of Toledo. URL https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230219/https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html |date=14 April 2021 }}</ref><ref>2017. Products made from petroleum. Ranken Energy Corporation. URL https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416193229/https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ |date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>
+* [[Fractional distillation]] is used in the midstream operations of an [[oil refinery]] for producing [[fuel]]s and chemical [[raw material]]s for livestock feed.<ref>Schaschke, C., 2014. A Dictionary of Chemical Engineering. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>2019. Distillation: The Historical Symbol of Chemical Engineering. The University of Toledo. URL https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230219/https://www.utoledo.edu/engineering/chemical-engineering/distillation.html |date=14 April 2021 }}</ref><ref>2017. Products made from petroleum. Ranken Energy Corporation. URL https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416193229/https://www.ranken-energy.com/index.php/products-made-from-petroleum/ |date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>
 * Cryogenic [[Air separation]] into the component gases — [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], and [[argon]] — for use as [[industrial gas]]es.
 * [[Chemical synthesis]] to separate impurities and unreacted materials.
 ==History==
+{{See also|Desalination#History|Distilled water#History}}
 === Iron Age ===
 Early evidence of distillation was found on [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] tablets dated {{Circa|1200 [[BCE]]}} describing perfumery operations. The tablets provided textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the [[Babylonia]]ns of ancient [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Levey |first=Martin |title=Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=1959 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |page=36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76ILAQAAIAAJ |quote=As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.}}</ref>
-=== Classical antiquity ===
+===Classical antiquity===
+====Greek and Roman terminology====
+According to British chemist T. Fairley, neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any term for the modern concept of distillation. Words like "distill" would have referred to something else, in most cases, a part of some process unrelated to what is now known as distillation. In the words of Fairley and German chemical engineer Norbert Kockmann, respectively:
+{{Blockquote
+| text = The Latin "distillo," from de-stillo, from stilla, a drop, referred to the dropping of a liquid by human or artificial means, and was applied to any process where a liquid was separated in drops. To distil in the modern sense could only be expressed in a roundabout manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fairley |first=T. |date=1907 |title=The Early History of Distillation |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=559–582 |doi=10.1002/j.2050-0416.1907.tb02205.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>
+}}
-==== Greek and Roman terminology ====
+{{Blockquote
-According to British chemist T. Fairley, neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any term for the modern concept of distillation. Words like "distill" would have referred to something else, in most cases a part of some process unrelated to what now is known as distillation. In the words of Fairley and German chemical engineer Norbert Kockmann respectively:
+| text = Distillation had a broader meaning in ancient and medieval times because nearly all purification and separation operations were subsumed under the term ''distillation'', such as filtration, crystallization, extraction, sublimation, or mechanical pressing of oil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kockmann |first=Norbert |url=https://www.academia.edu/43754849 |title=Distillation: Fundamentals and Principles |publisher=Academic Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-12-386547-2 |editor-last=Andrzej |editor-first=Górak |pages=1–43 |chapter=History of Distillation |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-386547-2.00001-6 |editor-last2=Sorensen |editor-first2=Eva}}</ref>
-{{Blockquote|text=The Latin "distillo," from de-stillo, from stilla, a drop, referred to the dropping of a liquid by human or artificial means, and was applied to any process where a liquid was separated in drops. To distil in the modern sense could only be expressed in a roundabout manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fairley |first=T. |date=1907 |title=The Early History of Distillation |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2050-0416.1907.tb02205.x |journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=559–582 |doi=10.1002/j.2050-0416.1907.tb02205.x}}</ref>}}
+}}According to Dutch chemical historian [[Robert Jacobus Forbes|Robert J. Forbes]], the word ''distillare'' (to drip off) when used by the Romans, e.g. [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], was "never used in our sense".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=R. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=1948 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=15 |orig-date=Reprinted 1970}}</ref>
-{{Blockquote|text=Distillation had a broader meaning in ancient and medieval times because nearly all purification and separation operations were subsumed under the term ''distillation'', such as filtration, crystallization, extraction, sublimation, or mechanical pressing of oil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kockmann |first=Norbert |url=https://www.academia.edu/43754849 |title=Distillation: Fundamentals and Principles |publisher=Academic Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-12-386547-2 |editor-last=Andrzej |editor-first=Górak |pages=1–43 |language=en |chapter=History of Distillation |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-386547-2.00001-6 |editor-last2=Sorensen |editor-first2=Eva}}</ref>}}According to Dutch chemical historian [[Robert Jacobus Forbes|Robert J. Forbes]], the word ''distillare'' (to drip off) when used by the Romans, e.g. [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], was "never used in our sense".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=R. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=1948 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=15 |orig-date=Reprinted 1970}}</ref>
-==== Aristotle ====
+====Aristotle====
 [[Aristotle]] knew that water condensing from evaporating seawater is fresh:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aristotle. |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000hdpl/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Meteorologica |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1952 |pages=2.3, 358b |language=Ancient Greek, English |translator-last=Lee |translator-first=H. D. P. |orig-date=c. 340 BC}}</ref>
-{{Blockquote|text=I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh, and the vapour does not, when it condenses, condense into sea water again.}}
+{{Blockquote
+| text = I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh, and the vapour does not, when it condenses, condense into sea water again.
+}}
 Letting seawater evaporate and condense into freshwater cannot be called "distillation" for distillation involves boiling, but the experiment may have been an important step towards distillation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=R. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A Short History of the Art of Distillation: From the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=1948 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=14 |orig-date=Reprinted 1970}}</ref>
-==== Alexandrian chemists ====
+====Alexandrian chemists====
-{{See also|Desalination#History|Distilled water#History}}
+[[File:Zosimos distillation equipment.jpg|thumb|Distillation equipment used by the 3rd-century alchemist [[Zosimos of Panopolis]]<ref>{{cite book|page=203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=earQAAAAMAAJ|title=The Volatile Oils|author1=Gildemeister, E. |author2=Hoffman, Fr. |author3=translated by Edward Kremers |volume=1|location=New York|publisher=Wiley|year=1913}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 88]|title=The History of Science and Technology|author1=Bryan H. Bunch|author2=Alexander Hellemans|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2004|isbn=978-0-618-22123-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88}}</ref> (as imagined by the anonymous illustrator of the 15th-century [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]] manuscript [[Theodoros Pelecanos|''Codex Parisinus graecus'' ''2327'']])''.''<ref>[[Marcelin Berthelot|Berthelot, Marcelin]] (1887–1888) [https://archive.org/details/collectiondesanc01bert ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'']. 3 vol., Paris, p. 161</ref>]]
-[[File:Zosimos distillation equipment.jpg|thumb|Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century alchemist [[Zosimos of Panopolis]],<ref>{{cite book|page=203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=earQAAAAMAAJ|title=The Volatile Oils|author1=Gildemeister, E. |author2=Hoffman, Fr. |author3=translated by Edward Kremers |volume=1|location=New York|publisher=Wiley|year=1913}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 88]|title=The History of Science and Technology|author1=Bryan H. Bunch|author2=Alexander Hellemans|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2004|isbn=978-0-618-22123-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88}}</ref> from the [[Byzantine Greek]] manuscript ''Parisinus graces.''<ref>[[Marcelin Berthelot|Berthelot, Marcelin]] (1887–1888) [https://archive.org/details/collectiondesanc01bert ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'']. 3 vol., Paris, p. 161</ref>]]Early evidence of distillation has been found related to [[Alchemy|alchemists]] working in [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] in [[Roman Egypt]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|pp=57,89}}
-Distilled water has been in use since at least {{Circa|200 CE}}, when [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] described the process.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=F. |year=1945 |title=The evolution of the still |journal=Annals of Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |page=185 |doi=10.1080/00033794500201451}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Berthelot |first=M. P. E. M. |date=1893 |title=The Discovery of Alcohol and Distillation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |url-status=live |journal=The Popular Science Monthly |volume=XLIII |pages=85–94 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129151553/https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |archive-date=29 November 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Work on distilling other liquids continued in early [[Byzantine Egypt]] under [[Zosimus of Panopolis]] in the 3rd century.
+Early evidence of distillation has been found related to [[Alchemy|alchemists]] working in [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] in [[Roman Egypt]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|pp=57,89}}
-=== Ancient India and China (1–500 CE) ===
+Distilled water has been in use since at least {{Circa|200 CE}}, when [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] described the process.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=F. |year=1945 |title=The evolution of the still |journal=Annals of Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |page=185 |doi=10.1080/00033794500201451}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Berthelot |first=M. P. E. M. |date=1893 |title=The Discovery of Alcohol and Distillation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |url-status=live |journal=The Popular Science Monthly |volume=XLIII |pages=85–94 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129151553/https://books.google.com/books?id=IisDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA85 |archive-date=29 November 2017 }}</ref> Work on distilling other liquids continued in early [[Byzantine Egypt]] under [[Zosimus of Panopolis]] in the 3rd century.
-Distillation was practiced in the ancient [[Indian subcontinent]], which is evident from baked clay [[retort]]s and receivers found at [[Taxila]], [[Shaikhan Dheri]], and [[Charsadda]] in [[Pakistan]] and [[Rang Mahal, Sri Ganganagar|Rang Mahal]] in [[India]] dating to the early centuries of the [[Common Era]].<ref>[[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]], ''Taxila'', '''2''':[https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&q=water-condensers&pg=PA420 420] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213050510/https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&newbks=0&lpg=PP1&vq=water-condensers&pg=PA420 |date=13 December 2022 }}, 1951</ref><ref>Frank Raymond Allchin, "India: the ancient home of distillation?" ''Man'', New Series '''14''':1:55-63 (1979) [https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf full text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220212010/https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf |date=20 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>Javed Husain, "The So-Called 'Distillery' at Shaikhan Dheri - A Case Study", ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society'' '''41''':3:289-314 (Jul 1, 1993)</ref> [[Frank Raymond Allchin]] says these terracotta distill tubes were "made to imitate bamboo".<ref>Frank Raymond Allchin, "India: the ancient home of distillation?" ''Man'', New Series '''14''':1:55-63 (1979) [https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf full text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220212010/https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf |date=20 December 2019 }}</ref> These "[[Gandhara]] stills" were only capable of producing very weak [[liquor]], as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.<ref name="habib">[[Irfan Habib|Habib, Irfan]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA55 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'']. [[Pearson Education]]. p. 55. {{ISBN|9788131727911}}</ref>
-Distillation in China may have begun at the earliest during the [[Eastern Han]] dynasty (1st–2nd century CE).<ref name="Haw"/>
+===Classical India and Ancient China===
+Distillation was practiced in the ancient [[Indian subcontinent]], which is evident from baked clay [[retort]]s and receivers found at [[Taxila]], [[Shaikhan Dheri]], and [[Charsadda]] in [[Pakistan]] and [[Rang Mahal, Sri Ganganagar|Rang Mahal]] in [[India]] dating to the early centuries of the [[Common Era]].<ref>[[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]], ''Taxila'', '''2''':[https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&q=water-condensers&pg=PA420 420] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213050510/https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&newbks=0&lpg=PP1&vq=water-condensers&pg=PA420 |date=13 December 2022 }}, 1951</ref><ref name="allchin">{{cite journal|last=Allchin|first=Frank Raymond|title=India: The Ancient Home of Distillation?|journal=Man|volume=14|issue=1|date=1979|doi=10.2307/2801640|pages=55–63}}</ref><ref>Javed Husain, "The So-Called 'Distillery' at Shaikhan Dheri – A Case Study", ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society'' '''41''':3:289-314 (1 July 1993)</ref> [[Frank Raymond Allchin]] says these terracotta distillation tubes were "made to imitate bamboo".<ref name="allchin" /> These "[[Gandhara]] stills" were only capable of producing a very weak distillate, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.<ref name="habib">[[Irfan Habib|Habib, Irfan]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA55 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'']. [[Pearson Education]]. p. 55. {{ISBN|9788131727911}}</ref> Distillation in China may have begun at the earliest during the [[Eastern Han]] dynasty (1st–2nd century CE).<ref name="Haw" />
-=== Islamic Golden Age ===
+===Islamic Golden Age===
 {{Main|Fractional distillation#History}}
 {{See also|Liquor#History of distillation}}
-Medieval [[Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world|Muslim chemists]] such as [[Jabir ibn Hayyan|Jābir ibn Ḥayyān]] (Latin: Geber, ninth century) and [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|Abū Bakr al-Rāzī]] (Latin: Rhazes, {{circa|865–925}}) experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances.  The [[fractional distillation]] of organic substances plays an important role in the works attributed to Jābir, such as in the [[Seventy Books|{{transliteration|ar|Kitāb al-Sabʿīn}}]] ('The Book of Seventy'), translated into Latin by [[Gerard of Cremona]] ({{Circa|1114–1187}}) under the title {{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)|year=1942–1943|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|isbn=9783487091150}} Vol. II, p. 5. On the attribution of the Latin translation to Gerard of Cremona, see {{cite journal|last1=Burnett|first1=Charles|year=2001|title=The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century|journal=Science in Context|volume=14|issue=1–2|pages=249–288|doi=10.1017/S0269889701000096|s2cid=143006568}} p. 280; {{cite journal|last1=Moureau|first1=Sébastien|year=2020|title=Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages|journal=Micrologus|volume=28|issue=|pages=87–141|hdl=2078.1/211340|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/211340}} pp. 106, 111.</ref> The Jabirian experiments with fractional distillation of animal and vegetable substances, and to a lesser degree also of mineral substances, is the main topic of the {{lang|la|De anima in arte alkimiae}}, an originally Arabic work falsely attributed to [[Avicenna]] that was translated into Latin and would go on to form the most important alchemical source for [[Roger Bacon]] ({{circa|1220–1292}}).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdLk3YPZiLEC&pg=PA35 |title=Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry |date=2000 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262082822 |editor1-last=Holmes |editor1-first=Frederic L. |editor1-link=Frederic L. Holmes |location=Cambridge |pages=35–54 |chapter=Alchemy, Assaying, and Experiment |author1-link=William R. Newman |editor2-last=Levere |editor2-first=Trevor H.}} p. 44.</ref>
+Medieval [[Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world|Muslim chemists]] such as [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|Abū Bakr al-Rāzī]] (Latin: Rhazes, {{circa|865–925}}) and the anonymous chemists writing under the name of [[Jabir ibn Hayyan|Jābir ibn Ḥayyān]] (Latin: Geber, ninth century) experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances. The [[fractional distillation]] of organic substances plays an important role in the works attributed to Jābir, such as in the [[Seventy Books|{{transliteration|ar|Kitāb al-Sabʿīn}}]] ('The Book of Seventy'), translated into Latin by [[Gerard of Cremona]] ({{Circa|1114–1187}}) under the title {{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)|year=1942–1943|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|isbn=9783487091150}} Vol. II, p. 5. On the attribution of the Latin translation to Gerard of Cremona, see {{cite journal|last1=Burnett|first1=Charles|year=2001|title=The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century|journal=Science in Context|volume=14|issue=1–2|pages=249–288|doi=10.1017/S0269889701000096|s2cid=143006568}} p. 280; {{cite journal|last1=Moureau|first1=Sébastien|year=2020|title=Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages|journal=Micrologus|volume=28|issue=|pages=87–141|hdl=2078.1/211340|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/211340}} pp. 106, 111.</ref> The Jabirian experiments with fractional distillation of animal and vegetable substances, and to a lesser degree also of mineral substances, is the main topic of the {{lang|la|De anima in arte alkimiae}}, an originally Arabic work falsely attributed to [[Avicenna]] that was translated into Latin and would go on to form the most important alchemical source for [[Roger Bacon]] ({{circa|1220–1292}}).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdLk3YPZiLEC&pg=PA35 |title=Instruments and Experimentation in the History of Chemistry |date=2000 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262082822 |editor1-last=Holmes |editor1-first=Frederic L. |editor1-link=Frederic L. Holmes |location=Cambridge |pages=35–54 |chapter=Alchemy, Assaying, and Experiment |author1-link=William R. Newman |editor2-last=Levere |editor2-first=Trevor H.}} p. 44. On the {{lang|la|De anima in arte alkimiae}}, see further {{cite book|last1=Moureau|first1=Sébastien|date=2016|title=Le De anima alchimique du pseudo-Avicenne. Vol. 1: Étude. Vol. 2: Édition critique et traduction annotée|series=Micrologus Library|volume=76|location=Florence|publisher=SISMEL/Edizioni del Galluzzo|isbn=978-88-8450-716-7}}</ref>
 The distillation of [[wine]] is attested in Arabic works attributed to [[Al-Kindi|al-Kindī]] ({{Circa|801–873 CE}}) and to [[Al-Farabi|al-Fārābī]] ({{Circa|872–950}}), and in the 28th book of [[Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrāwī]]'s (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) ''{{Lang|ar-latn|[[Al-Tasrif|Kitāb al-Taṣrīf]]}}'' (later translated into Latin as ''{{Lang|la|Liber servatoris}}'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=al-Hassan|first1=Ahmad Y.|author-link=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan|year=2009|chapter=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources from the 8th Century|title=Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry|location=Hildesheim|publisher=Georg Olms Verlag|pages=283–298}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html |date=29 December 2015 }}); cf. {{cite book|last1=Berthelot|first1=Marcellin|author1-link=Marcellin Berthelot|last2=Houdas|first2=Octave V.|year=1893|title=La Chimie au Moyen Âge|volume=I–III|location=Paris|publisher=Imprimerie nationale}} vol. I, pp. 141, 143.</ref> In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of ''{{Lang|la|aqua ardens}}'' ("burning water", i.e., ethanol) by distilling wine with [[salt]] started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.<ref>{{cite book|last=Multhauf|first=Robert P.|author-link=Robert P. Multhauf|year=1966|title=The Origins of Chemistry|location=London|publisher=Oldbourne|isbn=9782881245947}} pp. 204–206.</ref> The works of [[Taddeo Alderotti]] (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holmyard |first1=Eric John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&pg=PA51 |title=Alchemy |date=1957 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-486-26298-7 |location=Harmondsworth |author1-link=Eric John Holmyard}} pp. 51–52.</ref>
-=== Medieval China ===
+===Medieval China===
 The distillation of beverages began in the [[Southern Song dynasty|Southern Song]] (10th–13th century) and [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] (12th–13th century) dynasties, according to archaeological evidence.<ref name="Haw">{{cite book |author=Haw, Stephen G. |title=Marco Polo in China |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-27542-7 |pages=147–148 |chapter=Wine, women and poison |quote=The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty ... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA148}}</ref> A still was found in an archaeological site in Qinglong, [[Hebei]] province, China, dating back to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were common during the [[Yuan dynasty]] (13th–14th century).<ref name="Haw" />
-=== Modern era ===
+===Modern era===
-In 1500, German alchemist [[Hieronymus Brunschwig]] published ''{{Lang|la|[[Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus]]}}'' (''The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients''),<ref>{{cite book |first=Hieronymus |last=Braunschweig |author-link=Hieronymus Braunschweig |date=1500 |title=Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus |trans-title=The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients|language=de |url=https://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00031146&pimage=7&v=2p&nav=&l=de}}</ref> the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. Right after that, in 1518, the oldest surviving distillery in Europe, [[The Green Tree Distillery]], was founded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-12-28 |title=These Are 5 Oldest Companies In Europe. Ever Heard Of Any Of Them? |url=https://www.boredpanda.com/these-are-5-oldest-companies-in-europe-even-heard-of-any-of-them/ |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=Bored Panda |language=en-US}}</ref>
+In 1500, German alchemist [[Hieronymus Brunschwig]] published ''{{Lang|la|[[Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus]]}}'' (''The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients''),<ref>{{cite book |first=Hieronymus |last=Braunschweig |author-link=Hieronymus Braunschweig |date=1500 |title=Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus |trans-title=The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients|language=de |url=https://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00031146&pimage=7&v=2p&nav=&l=de}}</ref> the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. Right after that, in 1518, the oldest surviving distillery in Europe, [[the Green Tree Distillery]], was founded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2018 |title=These Are 5 Oldest Companies in Europe. Ever Heard of Any of Them? |url=https://www.boredpanda.com/these-are-5-oldest-companies-in-europe-even-heard-of-any-of-them/ |access-date=28 July 2024 |website=Bored Panda}}</ref>
 In 1651, [[John French (doctor)|John French]] published ''The Art of Distillation'',<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=French |author-link=John French (doctor) |date=1651 |title=The Art of Distillation |publisher=Richard Cotes |location=London |url=http://www.levity.com/alchemy/jfren_ar.html}}</ref> the first major English compendium on the practice, but it has been claimed<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ie50318a015|year=1936|title=Distillation|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|volume=28|issue=6|pages=677}}</ref> that much of it derives from Brunschwig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.
 [[File:Hieronymus Brunschwig Liber de arte Distillandi CHF AQ13x3.jpg|thumb|Hieronymus Brunschwig's ''Liber de arte Distillandi de Compositis'' (Strassburg, 1512) [https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/the-alchemical-quest Science History Institute]]]
-[[File:My retort.jpg|thumb|A [[retort]]]]
+[[File:My retort.jpg|thumb|A retort]]
 [[File:Distillation by Retort.png|thumb|Distillation]]
 [[File:UkrainianVodkaStill.jpg|thumb|Old Ukrainian vodka still]]
 [[File:Dorf Lore - Schnaps-Destillation.jpg|thumb|Simple liqueur distillation in [[East Timor]]]]
-As [[alchemy]] evolved into the science of [[chemistry]], vessels called [[retort]]s became used for distillations. Both [[alembic]]s and retorts are forms of [[Laboratory glassware|glassware]] with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle to act as air-cooled [[Condenser (heat transfer)|condensers]] to [[Condensation|condense]] the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Sealing Technique |url=http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104173651/http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-date=2012-11-04 |access-date= |website=copper-alembic}}</ref> These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water, for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called [[pot still]]s. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols, such as [[cognac (drink)|cognac]], [[Scotch whisky]], [[Irish whiskey]], [[tequila]], [[rum]], [[cachaça]], and some [[vodka]]s. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by [[Rum-runner|bootleggers]] in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for use in the domestic production<ref>[http://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html Traditional Alembic Pot Still] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121163501/https://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html |date=21 November 2006 }}, accessed 16 November 2006.</ref> of flower water or [[essential oils]].
+As [[alchemy]] evolved into the science of [[chemistry]], [[retort]]s became used for distillations. Both [[alembic]]s and retorts are [[Laboratory glassware|glass vessels]] with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle to act as air-cooled condensers to [[Condensation|condense]] the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were used. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance, a dough made of rye flour.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Sealing Technique |url=http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104173651/http://www.copper-alembic.com/manufacturing/specs_sealing.php |archive-date=4 November 2012 |access-date= |website=copper-alembic}}</ref> These alembics often used a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called [[pot still]]s. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the production of some fine alcoholic beverages including [[cognac (drink)|cognac]], [[whisky]] and [[whiskey]], [[tequila]], [[rum]], [[cachaça]], and some [[vodka]]s. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by [[Rum-runner|bootleggers]] in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for use in the domestic production<ref>[http://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html Traditional Alembic Pot Still] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121163501/https://www.essentialoil.com/alembic5.html |date=21 November 2006 }}, accessed 16 November 2006.</ref> of flower water or [[essential oils]].
-Early forms of distillation involved batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists reportedly carried out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.<ref name=Othmer>Othmer, D. F. (1982) "Distillation – Some Steps in its Development", in W. F. Furter (ed) ''A Century of Chemical Engineering''. {{ISBN|0-306-40895-3}}</ref>
+Early forms of distillation involved batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists reportedly carried out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.<ref name="Othmer">Othmer, D. F. (1982) "Distillation – Some Steps in its Development", in W. F. Furter (ed) ''A Century of Chemical Engineering''. {{ISBN|0-306-40895-3}}</ref>
-In the early 19th century, the basics of modern techniques, including pre-heating and [[reflux]], were developed.<ref name=Othmer/> In 1822, Anthony Perrier developed one of the first continuous stills, and then, in 1826, Robert Stein improved that design to make his [[column still|patent still]]. In 1830, [[Aeneas Coffey]] got a patent for improving the design even further.<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=A. |inventor-last=Coffey |inventor-link=Aeneas Coffey |title=Apparatus for Brewing and Distilling |country-code=GB |patent-number=5974 |publication-date=5 August 1830 |issue-date=5 February 1831}}; [http://www.kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 image] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204221819/http://kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 |date=4 February 2017 }}</ref> Coffey's continuous still may be regarded as the [[archetype]] of modern petrochemical units. The French engineer Armand Savalle developed his steam regulator around 1846.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|p=323}} In 1877, [[Ernest Solvay]] was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for [[ammonia]] distillation,<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=Ernest |inventor-last=Solvay |inventor-link=Ernest Solvay |country-code=US |patent-number=198699 |title=Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda Manufacture |publication-date=2 June 1876 |issue-date=25 December 1877}}</ref> and the same and subsequent years saw developments in this theme for oils and spirits.
+In the early 19th century, the basics of modern techniques, including pre-heating and [[reflux]], were developed.<ref name="Othmer" /> In 1822 Anthony Perrier developed one of the first continuous stills, and in 1826 Robert Stein improved that design to make his [[Column still|patent still]]. In 1830, [[Aeneas Coffey]] was granted a [[patent]] for improving the design further.<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=A. |inventor-last=Coffey |inventor-link=Aeneas Coffey |title=Apparatus for Brewing and Distilling |country-code=GB |patent-number=5974 |publication-date=5 August 1830 |issue-date=5 February 1831}}; [http://www.kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 image] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204221819/http://kennetpans.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=231&Itemid=405 |date=4 February 2017 }}</ref> Coffey's continuous still may be regarded as the [[archetype]] of modern petrochemical units. The French engineer Armand Savalle developed his steam regulator around 1846.<ref name="Forbes" />{{rp|p=323}} In 1877, [[Ernest Solvay]] was granted a U.S. patent for a tray column for [[ammonia]] distillation;<ref>{{cite patent |inventor-first=Ernest |inventor-last=Solvay |inventor-link=Ernest Solvay |country-code=US |patent-number=198699 |title=Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda Manufacture |publication-date=2 June 1876 |issue-date=25 December 1877}}</ref> from that year there were further developments on distilling oils and spirits.
-With the emergence of [[chemical engineering]] as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing [[petroleum]] industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods, such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]] by [[Ernest Thiele]] and the [[Fenske equation]]. The first industrial plant in the United States to use distillation as a means of ocean desalination opened in [[Freeport, Texas]] in 1961 with the hope of bringing [[water security]] to the region.<ref name="Transcript">{{cite web |title=Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom |website=Science History Institute|date=March 19, 2019 |access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref>
+With the emergence of [[chemical engineering]] as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing [[petroleum]] industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods, such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]] by [[Ernest Thiele]], and the [[Fenske equation]]. The first industrial plant in the United States to use distillation as a means of desalinating seawater opened in [[Freeport, Texas]] in 1961 with the hope of bringing [[water security]] to the region.<ref name="Transcript">{{cite web |title=Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/making-the-deserts-bloom |website=Science History Institute|date=19 March 2019 |access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref>
-The availability of powerful computers has allowed direct [[computer simulation]]s of distillation columns.
+The availability of powerful computers enabled distillation columns to be [[Computer simulation|simulated numerically]].
 ==Applications==
@@ Line 85: / Line 95: @@
 The [[boiling point]] of a liquid is the temperature at which the [[vapor pressure]] of the liquid equals the pressure around the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the [[normal boiling point]], where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient [[atmospheric pressure]].
-It is a misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure, allowing the vapors of each component to collect separately and purely. However, this does not occur, even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by [[Raoult's law]] and [[Dalton's law]] and assume that [[Vapor–liquid equilibrium|vapor–liquid equilibria]] are attained.
+It is a misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure, allowing the vapors of each component to collect separately and purely: this does not occur, even in an ideal system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by [[Raoult's law|Raoult]] and [[Dalton's law]]s, and assume that [[Vapor–liquid equilibrium|vapor–liquid equilibria]] are attained.
-Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on 1) the vapor pressure of each chemical component in the solution and 2) the fraction of solution each component makes up, a.k.a. the [[mole fraction]]. This law applies to [[ideal solution]]s, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are the same as or very similar to pure solutions.
+Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on 1) the vapor pressure of each chemical component in the solution and 2) the fraction of solution each component makes up, the [[mole fraction]]. This law applies to [[ideal solution]]s, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are the same as or very similar to pure solutions.
-Dalton's law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, [[boiling]] occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. A mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure when the components are mutually soluble. A mixture of constant composition does not have multiple boiling points.
+Dalton's law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, it boils, and the liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. A mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure when the components are mutually soluble. A mixture of constant composition does not have multiple boiling points.
-An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and, thus, are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily vaporize also, albeit at a lower concentration in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch vaporizes, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures. Therefore, starting from a given mixture, it appears to have a boiling range instead of a boiling point, although this is because its composition changes: each intermediate mixture has its own, singular boiling point.
+An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At the boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and, thus, are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily vaporize also, albeit at a lower concentration in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch vaporizes, which changes its composition; in fractionation, the liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more light components and boils at lower temperatures. Therefore, starting from a given mixture, it appears to have a boiling range instead of a boiling point, although this is because its composition changes: each intermediate mixture has its own, singular boiling point.
-The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as [[benzene]] and [[toluene]]. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an [[azeotrope]], which is when the vapor phase and liquid phase contain the same composition. Although there are [[computational chemistry|computational methods]] that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate [[vapor–liquid equilibrium]] data is by measurement.
+The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as [[benzene]] and [[toluene]]. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an [[azeotrope]], with the vapor and liquid phases having the same composition. Although there are [[Computational chemistry|computational methods]] to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate [[vapor–liquid equilibrium]] data is by measurement.
-It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero [[partial pressure]]. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further [[Separation of chemicals|chemical separation]] must be applied. When a binary mixture is vaporized and the other component, e.g., a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler.
+It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero [[partial pressure]]. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further [[Separation of chemicals|chemical separation]] is required. When a binary mixture is vaporized and the other component, e.g., a salt, has negligible partial pressure, zero for practical purposes, the process is simpler.
 ===Batch or differential distillation===
+[[File:BatchDistill.svg|thumb|left|A batch still showing the separation of A and B.]]
-[[File:BatchDistill.svg|thumb|left|A batch still showing the separation of A and B.]]
 Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances, A and B, with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point, in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid that contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid. The ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This, in turn, means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e., more enriched in B than in the starting liquid).
 The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio of A : B in the distillate.
-If the difference in vapour pressure between the two components A and B is large – generally expressed as the difference in boiling points – the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.
+If the difference in vapour pressure between the two components A and B is large – generally expressed as the difference in boiling points – the mixture at the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.
 ===Continuous distillation===
 {{Main|Continuous distillation}}
-Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams occur over time during the operation. Continuous distillation produces a minimum of two output fractions, including at least one [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor and then condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.
+Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process, and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams occur over time during the operation. Continuous distillation produces a minimum of two output fractions, including at least one [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor and then condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.
 Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a [[steady state]] for an arbitrary amount of time. For any source material of specific composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages, in practice determined by the number of trays or the height of packing. Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor–liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.
 ===General improvements===
-Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a [[fractionating column]] on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor–liquid equilibrium.
+Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a [[fractionating column]] on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, each with its own vapor–liquid equilibrium.
-There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include:
+There are differences between laboratory- and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in order of increasing efficiency) include:
 * [[Condenser (laboratory)#Air condenser|Air condenser]]
 * [[Vigreux column]] (usually laboratory scale only)
@@ Line 123: / Line 133: @@
 ==Laboratory procedures==
-Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a ''[[still]]'', consists at a minimum of a reboiler or ''pot'' in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated [[gas|vapor]] is cooled back to the liquid [[phase (matter)|state]], and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also [[:Category:Distillation|distillation types]]).
+Laboratory-scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a ''[[still]]'', consists at a minimum of a reboiler or ''pot'' in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated [[gas|vapor]] is cooled back to the liquid [[phase (matter)|state]], and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory-scale techniques for distillation exist (see also [[Category:Distillation|distillation types]]).
-A completely sealed distillation apparatus could experience extreme and rapidly varying internal pressure, which could cause it to burst open at the joints.  Therefore, some path is usually left open (for instance, at the receiving flask) to allow the internal pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, a [[vacuum pump]] may be used to keep the apparatus at a lower than atmospheric pressure.  If the substances involved are air- or moisture-sensitive, the connection to the atmosphere can be made through one or more [[drying tube]]s packed with materials that scavenge the undesired air components, or through [[bubbler]]s that provide a movable liquid barrier.  Finally, the entry of undesired air components can be prevented by pumping a low but steady flow of suitable inert gas, like [[nitrogen]], into the apparatus.
+A completely sealed distillation apparatus could experience extreme and rapidly varying internal pressure, which could cause it to burst open at the joints. Therefore, some path is usually left open (for instance, at the receiving flask) to allow the internal pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, a [[vacuum pump]] may be used to keep the apparatus at a lower than atmospheric pressure. If the substances involved are air- or moisture-sensitive, the connection to the atmosphere can be made through one or more [[drying tube]]s packed with materials that scavenge the undesired air components, or through [[bubbler]]s that provide a movable liquid barrier. Finally, the entry of undesired air components can be prevented by pumping a low but steady flow of suitable inert gas, like [[nitrogen]], into the apparatus.
 ===Simple distillation===
-[[File:Simple distillation apparatus.svg|300 px|thumb|right|Schematic of a simple distillation setup.]]
+[[File:Simple distillation apparatus.svg|300 px|thumb|right|Schematic of a simple distillation setup]]
-In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure. That concentration follows [[Raoult's law]].
+In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure, but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure. That concentration follows [[Raoult's law]].
 As a result, simple distillation is effective only when the liquid boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25&nbsp;°C)<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080908000656/http://www.iupac.org/didac/Didac%20Eng/Didac05/Content/ST07.htm ST07 Separation of liquid–liquid mixtures (solutions)], DIDAC by [[IUPAC]]</ref> or when separating liquids from non-volatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually different enough that the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.
@@ Line 137: / Line 148: @@
 ===Fractional distillation===
 {{Main|Fractional distillation}}
-For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that [[Raoult's law]] must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.<ref name=Perry/>
+For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that [[Raoult's law]] must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.<ref name="Perry" />
 As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the [[fractionating column]]. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors is determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a ''[[theoretical plate]]'') will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070903202418/http://wulfenite.fandm.edu/labtech/fractdistill.htm Fractional Distillation]. fandm.edu</ref> In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; ''theoretical plate'' is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.
@@ Line 145: / Line 157: @@
 ===Steam distillation===
 {{Main|Steam distillation}}
 Like [[vacuum distillation]], steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|pages=151–153}} The temperature of the steam is easier to control than the surface of a [[heating element]] and allows a high rate of heat transfer without heating at a very high temperature. This process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.
@@ Line 152: / Line 165: @@
 [[File:perkin triangle distillation apparatus.svg|thumb|Perkin triangle distillation setup
 {{#invoke:list|horizontal_ordered
- | Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules
+| Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules
- | Still pot
+| Still pot
- | Fractionating column
+| Fractionating column
- | Thermometer/Boiling point temperature
+| Thermometer/Boiling point temperature
- | Teflon tap 1
+| Teflon tap 1
- | Cold finger
+| Cold finger
- | Cooling water out
+| Cooling water out
- | Cooling water in
+| Cooling water in
- | Teflon tap 2
+| Teflon tap 2
- | Vacuum/gas inlet
+| Vacuum/gas inlet
- | Teflon tap 3
+| Teflon tap 3
- | Still receiver
+| Still receiver
 }}]]
 ===Vacuum distillation===
 {{Main|Vacuum distillation}}
 Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the [[rotary evaporator]].
@@ Line 175: / Line 189: @@
 [[Molecular distillation]] is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 [[torr]]. 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above [[Hard vacuum|high vacuum]], where fluids are in the [[free molecular flow]] regime, i.e., the [[mean free path]] of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.
-=== Short path distillation ===
+===Short-path distillation===
 {{Main|Short-path distillation}}
 [[File:short path distillation apparatus.svg|thumb|right|Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path;
 {{#invoke:list|horizontal_ordered
- | style=display:inline;
+| style=display:inline;
- | list_style=display:inline;
+| list_style=display:inline;
- | Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules
+| Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules
- | Cold finger – bent to direct condensate
+| Cold finger – bent to direct condensate
- | Cooling water out
+| Cooling water out
- | cooling water in
+| cooling water in
- | Vacuum/gas inlet
+| Vacuum/gas inlet
- | Distillate flask/distillate.
+| Distillate flask/distillate.
 }}]]
-Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|page=150}} A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus.
+Short-path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.<ref name="Harwood_Moody" />{{rp|page=150}} A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus.
+While classic short-path distillation systems in the laboratory work with a static, heated flask in which the material evaporates as a pool of liquid, there are also systems that combine the advantages of thin-film distillation with those of short-path distillation. In this case, it is a thin-film evaporator with an internal rather than an external condenser.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GmbH |first=U. I. C. |title=Short Path Distillators |url=http://www.uic-gmbh.de/en/products/short-path-distillators |access-date=6 February 2026 |website=uic-gmbh.de}}</ref>
 ===Air-sensitive vacuum distillation===
@@ Line 195: / Line 213: @@
 The Perkin triangle has means via a series of glass or [[Polytetrafluoroethylene|Teflon]] taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the [[still]], without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of [[reflux]]. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as [[nitrogen]] or [[argon]]) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.
-===Zone distillation===
+Zone distillation is the distillation analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization, with the separation factor α of distillation used in place of the crystallization distribution coefficient k.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Зонная дистилляция: новый метод рафинирования|trans-title=Zone distillation: a new method of refining|url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/111613 |journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=19 |pages=24–26 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Zone distillation: justification |url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/79912|journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2014 |volume=1 |issue=20 |pages=64–65 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Разработка перспективных схем зонной дистилляции|trans-title=Design of advanced processes of zone distillation |journal=Perspectivnye Materialy |year=2014 |number=7 |pages=68–72 |language=ru|url=http://j-pm.imet-db.ru/?archive&a=1573}}</ref>
-Zone distillation is a distillation process in a long container with partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area. The process is worked in theory. When zone heater is moving from the top to the bottom of the container then solid condensate with irregular impurity distribution is forming. Then most pure part of the condensate may be extracted as product. The process may be iterated many times by moving (without turnover) the received condensate to the bottom part of the container on the place of refined matter. The irregular impurity distribution in the condensate (that is efficiency of purification) increases with the number of iterations.
-Zone distillation is the distillation analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization – with the replacement of the distribution co-efficient k of crystallization - for the separation factor α of distillation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Зонная дистилляция: новый метод рафинирования|trans-title=Zone distillation: a new method of refining|url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/111613 |journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=19 |pages=24–26 |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Zone distillation: justification |url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/79912|journal=Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |year=2014 |volume=1 |issue=20 |pages=64–65 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kravchenko |first=A. I. |title=Разработка перспективных схем зонной дистилляции|trans-title=Design of advanced processes of zone distillation |journal=Perspectivnye Materialy |year=2014 |number=7 |pages=68–72 |language=ru|url=http://j-pm.imet-db.ru/?archive&a=1573}}</ref>
 ===Closed-system vacuum distillation (cryovap)===
@@ Line 213: / Line 229: @@
 The unit process of [[evaporation]] may also be called "distillation":
 * In [[rotary evaporation]] a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk [[solvent]]s from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a [[aspirator (pump)|water aspirator]] or a [[membrane pump]].
-* In a [[Kugelrohr apparatus]] a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300&nbsp;°C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
+* In a [[Kugelrohr|Kugelrohr apparatus]] a short-path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300&nbsp;°C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
 Other uses:
@@ Line 222: / Line 238: @@
 ==Azeotropic process==
 {{Main|Azeotropic distillation}}
 Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail non-ideal mixtures, where [[Raoult's law]] does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling '''[[azeotrope]]''' which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not result in separation. For example, 95.6% [[ethanol]] (by mass) in water forms an azeotrope at 78.1&nbsp;°C.
@@ Line 253: / Line 270: @@
 [[File:Colonne distillazione.jpg|right|thumb|Typical industrial distillation towers]]
 {{Main|Continuous distillation}}
 Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in [[oil refinery|petroleum refineries]], [[petrochemical]] and [[chemical plant]]s and [[natural gas processing]] plants.
 To control and optimize such industrial distillation, a standardized laboratory method, ASTM D86, is established. This test method extends to the atmospheric distillation of petroleum products using a laboratory batch distillation unit to quantitatively determine the boiling range characteristics of petroleum products.
-Industrial distillation<ref name=Perry>{{cite book|author1=Perry, Robert H.  |author2=Green, Don W.|title=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook|edition=6th| publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1984|isbn=978-0-07-049479-4|title-link=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook}}</ref><ref name=Kister>{{cite book|author=Kister, Henry Z.|title=Distillation Design|edition=1st |publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1992|isbn=978-0-07-034909-4|title-link=Distillation Design}}</ref> is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about {{convert|0.65|to|16|m}} and heights ranging from about {{convert|6|to|90|m}} or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling [[crude oil]], liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different ''fractions'' or products having different [[boiling points]] or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
+Industrial distillation<ref name="Perry">{{cite book|author1=Perry, Robert H.  |author2=Green, Don W.|title=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook|edition=6th| publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1984|isbn=978-0-07-049479-4|title-link=Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook}}</ref><ref name="Kister">{{cite book|author=Kister, Henry Z.|title=Distillation Design|edition=1st |publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1992|isbn=978-0-07-034909-4|title-link=Distillation Design}}</ref> is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about {{convert|0.65|to|16|m}} and heights ranging from about {{convert|6|to|90|m}} or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling [[crude oil]], liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different ''fractions'' or products having different [[boiling points]] or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
 [[File:Continuous Binary Fractional Distillation.PNG|left|thumb|Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower]]
 Industrial towers use [[reflux]] to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of [[theoretical plate]]s, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required. [[Chemical engineer]]s must choose what combination of reflux rate and number of plates is both economically and physically feasible for the products purified in the distillation column.
@@ Line 265: / Line 284: @@
 [[File:Bubble Cap Trays.PNG|frame|right|Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps]]
-Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]]<ref name=Perry/><ref name=SeaderHenley>{{cite book|author1=Seader, J. D.  |author2=Henley, Ernest J.|title=Separation Process Principles|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-0-471-58626-5}}</ref> or the [[Fenske equation]]<ref name=Perry/> can be used. For a multi-component feed, [[simulation]] models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor–liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient [[equilibrium stage]]. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages. A variety of models have been postulated to estimate tray efficiencies.
+Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the [[McCabe–Thiele method]]<ref name="Perry" /><ref name="SeaderHenley">{{cite book|author1=Seader, J. D.  |author2=Henley, Ernest J.|title=Separation Process Principles|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-0-471-58626-5}}</ref> or the [[Fenske equation]]<ref name="Perry" /> can be used. For a multi-component feed, [[simulation]] models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor–liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient [[equilibrium stage]]. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages. A variety of models have been postulated to estimate tray efficiencies.
 In modern industrial uses, a packing material is used in the column instead of trays when low pressure drops across the column are required. Other factors that favor packing are: vacuum systems, smaller diameter columns, corrosive systems, systems prone to foaming, systems requiring low liquid holdup, and batch distillation. Conversely, factors that favor [[plate column]]s are: presence of solids in feed, high liquid rates, large column diameters, complex columns, columns with wide feed composition variation, columns with a chemical reaction, absorption columns, columns limited by foundation weight tolerance, low liquid rate, large turn-down ratio and those processes subject to process surges.
-[[File:Vacuum Column.jpg|thumb|left|183px|Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column<ref>[http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html Energy Institute website page] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012072758/http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html |date=12 October 2007 }}. Resources.schoolscience.co.uk. Retrieved on 2014-04-20.</ref>]]
+[[File:Vacuum Column.jpg|thumb|left|183px|Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column<ref>[http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html Energy Institute website page] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012072758/http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/SPE/knowl/4/2index.htm?vacuum.html |date=12 October 2007 }}. Resources.schoolscience.co.uk. Retrieved on 20 April 2014.</ref>]]
 This packing material can either be random or dumped packing ({{convert|1|-|3|in|order=flip}} wide) such as [[Raschig ring]]s or [[structured packing|structured sheet metal]]. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where [[mass transfer]] takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor–liquid equilibrium, the vapor–liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both these factors affect packing performance.
-Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of [[Theoretical plate|theoretical stages]] required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The [[Theoretical plate|height equivalent to a theoretical plate]] (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.<ref name=Moore>Moore, F., Rukovena, F. (August 1987) ''Random Packing, Vapor and Liquid Distribution: Liquid and gas distribution in commercial packed towers'', Chemical Plants & Processing, Edition Europe, pp. 11–15</ref><ref name=Spiegel>{{cite journal|last1=Spiegel|first1=L|title=A new method to assess liquid distributor quality|journal=Chemical Engineering and Processing|volume=45|page=1011|year=2006|doi=10.1016/j.cep.2006.05.003|issue=11|bibcode=2006CEPPI..45.1011S}}</ref> Considerable work has been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).<ref name=Kunesh>{{cite journal|last1=Kunesh|first1=John G.|last2=Lahm|first2=Lawrence|last3=Yanagi|first3=Takashi|title=Commercial scale experiments that provide insight on packed tower distributors|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research|volume=26|page=1845|year=1987|doi=10.1021/ie00069a021|issue=9}}</ref>
+Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of [[Theoretical plate|theoretical stages]] required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The [[Theoretical plate|height equivalent to a theoretical plate]] (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.<ref name="Moore">Moore, F., Rukovena, F. (August 1987) ''Random Packing, Vapor and Liquid Distribution: Liquid and gas distribution in commercial packed towers'', Chemical Plants & Processing, Edition Europe, pp. 11–15</ref><ref name="Spiegel">{{cite journal|last1=Spiegel|first1=L|title=A new method to assess liquid distributor quality|journal=Chemical Engineering and Processing|volume=45|page=1011|year=2006|doi=10.1016/j.cep.2006.05.003|issue=11|bibcode=2006CEPPI..45.1011S}}</ref> Considerable work has been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).<ref name="Kunesh">{{cite journal|last1=Kunesh|first1=John G.|last2=Lahm|first2=Lawrence|last3=Yanagi|first3=Takashi|title=Commercial scale experiments that provide insight on packed tower distributors|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research|volume=26|page=1845|year=1987|doi=10.1021/ie00069a021|issue=9}}</ref>
 ===Multi-effect distillation===
@@ Line 281: / Line 301: @@
 ==In food processing==
 ===Beverages===
 {{Main|Distilled beverage}}
-[[Carbohydrate]]-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as [[whiskey]] and [[rum]] are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. Some of these beverages are then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more flavor compounds and characteristic flavors.
+[[Carbohydrate]]-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as [[whiskey]] and [[rum]] are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. Some of these beverages are then stored in wooden barrels or other containers from which they acquire more flavor compounds and characteristic flavors.
 ==Gallery==
@@ Line 296: / Line 315: @@
 </gallery>
-== See also ==
+==See also==
 * [[Atmospheric distillation of crude oil]]
 * [[Clyssus]]
@@ Line 307: / Line 326: @@
 ==References==
-{{Reflist|30em|refs=
+{{Reflist|30em|refs=<ref name="Harwood_Moody">{{cite Q|Q107313989|first1=Laurence M. |last1=Harwood |first2=Christopher J. | last2=Moody| url=https://archive.org/details/experimentalorga00harw | url-access=registration | access-date=22 June 2021 | via = [[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite Q|Q107312970|last1=Forbes| first1=Robert J.|author-link1 = Robert Jacobus Forbes | via = [[Google Books]]}}</ref>
-<ref name="Harwood_Moody">{{cite Q|Q107313989|first1=Laurence M. |last1=Harwood |first2=Christopher J. | last2=Moody| url=https://archive.org/details/experimentalorga00harw | url-access=registration | access-date=2021-06-22 | via = [[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>
-<ref name="Forbes">{{cite Q|Q107312970|last1=Forbes| first1=Robert  J.|author-link1 = Robert Jacobus Forbes | via = [[Google Books]]}}</ref>
 }}

Distillation: Difference between revisions

Navigation menu

Search