Dictator: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 20:33, 18 May 2026

20th-century leaders typically described as dictators (from left to right and top to bottom): Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union; Adolf Hitler of Germany; Augusto Pinochet of Chile; Mao Zedong of China; Benito Mussolini of Italy; and Kim Il Sung of North Korea

A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute power. A dictatorship is defined as a state ruled by a dictator.^[1]^[2] The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency.^[2] Like the terms "tyrant" and "autocrat", dictator came to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive rule. In modern usage, the term dictator is generally used to describe a leader who holds or abuses an extraordinary amount of personal power.

Dictatorships are often characterised by some of the following: suspension of elections and civil liberties; proclamation of a state of emergency; rule by decree; repression of political opponents; not abiding by the procedures of the rule of law; and the existence of a cult of personality centered on the leader. Dictatorships are often one-party or dominant-party states.^[3]^[4] A wide variety of leaders coming to power in different kinds of regimes, such as one-party or dominant-party states and civilian governments under a personal rule, have been described as dictators.

Etymology

File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101) (cropped).jpg

Julius Caesar outmaneuvered his opponents in ancient Rome to install himself as dictator for life.

The word dictator comes from the Latin word dictātor, agent noun from dictare (say repeatedly, assert, order).^[5]^[6] A dictator was a Roman magistrate given sole power for a limited duration. Originally an emergency legal appointment in the Roman Republic and the Etruscan culture, the term dictator did not have the negative meaning it has now.^[7] It started to get its modern negative meaning with Cornelius Sulla's ascension to the dictatorship following Sulla's civil war, making himself the first Dictator in Rome in more than a century (during which the office was ostensibly abolished) as well as de facto eliminating the time limit and need of senatorial acclamation.^[8]

He avoided a major constitutional crisis by resigning the office after about one year, dying a few years later. Julius Caesar followed Sulla's example in 49 BC and in February 44 BC was proclaimed Dictator perpetuo, "Dictator in perpetuity", officially doing away with any limitations on his power, which he kept until his assassination the following month. Following Caesar's assassination, his heir Augustus was offered the title of dictator, but he declined it. Later successors also declined the title of dictator, and usage of the title soon diminished among Roman rulers.^[9]

Modern era

File:2017 Freedom House world map.png

Country ratings for 2016 from Freedom House's Freedom in the World 2017^[10]
Free (86) Partly Free (59) Not Free (50)

File:EIU Democracy Index 2017.svg

2017 Democracy Index by The Economist in which countries marked in different shades of red are considered undemocratic, with many being dictatorships^[11]

As late as the second half of the 19th century, the term dictator had occasional positive implications. For example, during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the national leader Lajos Kossuth was often referred to as dictator, without any negative connotations, by his supporters and detractors alike, although his official title was that of regent-president.^[12] When creating a provisional executive in Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi officially assumed the title of "dictator".^[13] Shortly afterwards, during the 1863 January uprising in Poland, "Dictator" was also the official title of four leaders, the first being Ludwik Mierosławski.^[14]

File:Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo on September 26, 2024 (cropped).jpg

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo of Equatorial Guinea, having served since 1979, is the longest-serving living dictator.^[15]^[16]

Past that time, however, the term dictator assumed an invariably negative connotation. In popular usage, a dictatorship is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse against political opponents. Many dictators create a cult of personality around themselves and they have also come to grant themselves increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours.^[17] For instance, Idi Amin, who had served in the King's African Rifles prior to Ugandan independence from Britain in 1962, subsequently styled himself "His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor^[A] Idi Amin Dada, VC,^[B] DSO, MC, Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular".^[18] In the movie The Great Dictator (1940), Charlie Chaplin satirized not only Adolf Hitler but the institution of dictatorship itself.^[19]

Characteristics

Dictators usually maintain power through political repression of any opposition and the consolidation of other influential or powerful members of society. The general public is controlled through indoctrination and propaganda, and an autocracy may attempt to legitimize itself in the eyes of the public through appeals to political ideology, religion, or foreign hostility.^[20] Some dictatorships establish legislatures, unfair elections, or show trials to further exercise control while presenting the appearance of democracy.^[21]

Benevolent dictatorship

A benevolent dictatorship is a concept that describes a government in which an authoritarian leader exercises absolute political power over the state but is perceived to do so with regard for the benefit of the population as a whole, standing in contrast to the decidedly malevolent stereotype of a dictator. The label has been applied to leaders such as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey (1923–1938),^[22] Josip Broz Tito of SFR Yugoslavia (1953–1980),^[23] and Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore (1959–1990).^[24]

Military roles

The association between a dictator and the military is a common one. Many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military and they often wear military uniforms. In some cases, this is perfectly legitimate; for instance, Francisco Franco was a general in the Spanish Army before he became Chief of State of Spain,^[25] and Manuel Noriega was officially commander of the Panamanian Defense Forces.^[26]

Crowd manipulation

Some dictators have preferred to use crowd manipulation, such as Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. Others were more prosaic speakers, such as Joseph Stalin and Francisco Franco. Typically, the dictator's people seize control of all media, censor or destroy the opposition, and give strong doses of propaganda daily, often built around a cult of personality.^[27]

Mussolini and Hitler used similar titles referring to them as "the Leader". Mussolini used "Il Duce" and Hitler was generally referred to as "der Führer", both meaning 'Leader' in Italian and German respectively. Franco used a similar title, "El Caudillo" ("the Head", 'the chieftain').^[28] In the case of Franco, the title "Caudillo" did have a longer history for political-military figures in both Spain and Latin America. Franco also used the phrase "By the Grace of God" on coinage or other material displaying him as Caudillo.^[29]

Human rights abuses, war crimes and genocides

Over time, dictators have been known to use tactics that violate human rights. For example, under the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, government policy was enforced by secret police and the Gulag system of prison labour camps. Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time. Data collected from Soviet archives gives the death toll from Gulags as 1,053,829.^[30] The International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for Sudan's military dictator Omar al-Bashir over alleged war crimes in Darfur.

Similar crimes were committed during Chairman Mao Zedong's rule over the People's Republic of China during China's Cultural Revolution, where Mao set out to purge dissidents, primarily through the use of youth groups strongly committed to his cult of personality,^[31] and during Augusto Pinochet's junta in Chile.^[32] Some dictators have been associated with genocide on certain races or groups; the most notable and wide-reaching example is the Holocaust, Adolf Hitler's genocide of eleven million people, of whom six million were Jews.^[33] Later on in Democratic Kampuchea, General Secretary Pol Pot and his policies killed an estimated 1.7 million people (out of a population of 7 million) during his four-year dictatorship.^[34] As a result, Pol Pot is sometimes described as "the Hitler of Cambodia" and "a genocidal tyrant".^[35] In Ba'athist Iraq, Saddam Hussein launched the Anfal campaign against the Kurdish population.^[36] Although primarily targeting Kurds, other non-Arabs also fell victim to the Anfal campaign.^[37] Due to this, Saddam is often nicknamed "The Hitler of the Middle East".^[38]

Usage in formal titles

File:Giuseppe Garibaldi portrait2.jpg

Giuseppe Garibaldi, celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times^[39] and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe,^[40] who fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification. He proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in 1860 during the Expedition of the Thousand

Because of its negative and pejorative connotations, modern authoritarian leaders very rarely (if ever) use the term dictator in their formal titles, instead they most often simply have title of president. In the 19th century, however, its official usage was more common:^[41]

The Dictatorial Government of Sicily (27 May – 4 November 1860) was a provisional executive government appointed by Giuseppe Garibaldi to rule Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand. The government ended when Sicily's annexation into the Kingdom of Italy was ratified by plebiscite.^[42]
Marian Langiewicz of Poland proclaimed himself Dictator and attempted (unsuccessfully) to form a Polish government in March 1863.^[43]
Romuald Traugutt was Dictator of Poland from 17 October 1863 to 10 April 1864.^[44]
The Dictatorial Government of the Philippines (24 May – 23 June 1898) was an insurgent government in the Philippines which was headed by Emilio Aguinaldo, who formally held the title of Dictator.^[45] The dictatorial government was superseded by the revolutionary government with Aguinaldo as president.

As a term of abuse

In modern times the word dictator is often applied to leaders who engage in or promote antidemocratic policies, or attempt to establish a repressive regime by force. In the 21st century, the heads of various countries that have undergone democratic backsliding have been referred to as dictators.^[46]

The usage of the term dictator in western media has been criticized by the left-leaning organization Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting as "Code for Government We Don't Like". According to them, leaders that would generally be considered authoritarian but are allied with the United States such as Paul Biya or Nursultan Nazarbayev are rarely referred to as "dictators", while leaders of countries opposed to U.S. policy such as Nicolás Maduro or Bashar al-Assad have the term applied to them much more liberally.^[47]

References

Informational notes

A ^ He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University.^[48]
B ^ The Victorious Cross (VC) was a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross.^[49]

Citations

↑ Robertson, David Professor (22 April 2015). A Dictionary of Modern Politics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-63943-5.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 "Lessons in On-Line Reference PublishingMerriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-WebsterMerriam-Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus. Merriam-WebsterMerriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia. Merriam-Webster". The Library Quarterly. 71 (3): 392–399. July 2001. doi:10.1086/603287. ISSN 0024-2519. S2CID 148183387.
↑ Papaioannou, Kostadis; vanZanden, Jan Luiten (2015). "The Dictator Effect: How long years in office affect economic development". Journal of Institutional Economics. 11 (1): 111–139. doi:10.1017/S1744137414000356. hdl:1874/329292. S2CID 154309029.
↑ Olson, Mancur (1993). "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development". American Political Science Review. 87 (3): 567–576. doi:10.2307/2938736. JSTOR 2938736. S2CID 145312307.
↑ "Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, dicto". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-17.
↑ "Oxford English Dictionary".
↑ Le Glay, Marcel. (2009). A history of Rome. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8327-7. OCLC 760889060.
↑ Wilson, Mark B. (2021). Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780472132669.
↑ Wilson, Mark B. (2021). Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 330. ISBN 9780472132669.
↑ Freedom in The World 2017 – Populists and Autocrats: The Dual Threat to Global Democracy Archived 2017-07-27 at the Wayback Machine by Freedom House, January 31, 2017
↑ "Democracy Index 2017 – Economist Intelligence Unit" (PDF). EIU.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
↑ Macartney, Carlile Aylmer (September 15, 2020). Lajos Kossuth. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2020.
↑ Riall, Lucy (20 October 2008). Garibaldi. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17651-3.
↑ Davies, Norman (31 May 2001). Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-164713-0.
↑ "The brutal central African dictator whose playboy son faces French corruption trial". The Independent. 12 September 2016.
↑ "The Five Worst Leaders In Africa". Forbes. 9 February 2012.
↑ Treisman, Daniel; Guriev, Sergei (4 April 2023). Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-22447-3.
↑ Keatley, Patrick (18 August 2003). "Obituary: Idi Amin". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 2013-12-05. Retrieved 2008-03-18.
↑ "LIFE". 2 September 1940.
↑ Treisman, Daniel; Guriev, Sergei (4 April 2023). Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-22447-3.
↑ "Autocratic Legalism | the University of Chicago Law Review".
↑ "Atatürk, Ghazi Mustapha Kemal (1881–1938)". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
↑ Shapiro, Susan; Shapiro, Ronald (2004). The Curtain Rises: Oral Histories of the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-1672-1. Archived from the original on 2021-05-12. Retrieved 2019-01-19. All Yugoslavs had educational opportunities, jobs, food, and housing regardless of nationality. Tito, seen by most as a benevolent dictator, brought peaceful co-existence to the Balkan region, a region historically synonymous with factionalism.
↑ Miller, Matt (2012-05-02). "What Singapore can teach us". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2015-11-25.
↑ Thomas, Hugh (1977). The Spanish Civil War. Harper & Row. pp. 421–424. ISBN 978-0-06-014278-0.
↑ Dinges, John (26 September 2023). Our Man in Panama: The Shrewd Rise and Brutal Fall of Manuel Noriega. Open Road Media. ISBN 978-1-5040-8719-3.
↑ Morstein, Marx Fritz; et al. (March 2007). Propaganda and Dictatorship. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-1-4067-4724-9.
↑ Hamil, Hugh M., ed. (1992). "Introduction". Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-8061-2428-5.
↑ Moradiellos, Enrique (18 December 2017). Franco: Anatomy of a Dictator. Bloomsbury. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-78673-300-9.
↑ "Gulag Prisoner Population Statistics from 1934 to 1953." Wasatch.edu. Wasatch, n.d. Web. 16 July 2016: "According to a 1993 study of Soviet archival data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953. However, taking into account that it was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or on the point of death, the actual Gulag death toll was somewhat higher, amounting to 1,258,537 in 1934–53, or 1.6 million deaths during the whole period from 1929 to 1953.."
↑ Wang, Sally (18 August 2012). "Remembering the dark days of China's Cultural Revolution". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2018-06-09. Retrieved 2021-07-15.
↑ Constable, Pamela; Valenzuela, Arturo (1993-05-04). Nation of Enemies Chile Under Pinochet. W.W Norton & Company. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-393-30985-0.
↑ "The Holocaust". The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Archived from the original on 2021-07-15. Retrieved 2021-07-15.
↑ ""Top 15 Toppled Dictators". Time. 20 October 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-08-24. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
↑ Branigin, William (1998-04-17). "ARCHITECT OF GENOCIDE WAS UNREPENTANT TO THE END". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2025-11-21.
↑ Beeston, Richard (18 January 2010). "Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore". The Times. Archived from the original on 23 January 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
↑ The Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Barwar, Geoffrey Khan, 2008, pp. 6, ISBN 9789047443490
↑ "Crisis in the Gulf, by George Bush, Saddam Hussein, et alia. As Told to The New York Times". Postmodern Culture. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2026.
↑ "Scholar and Patriot". Manchester University Press. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2020 – via Google Books.
↑ "Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary)". Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
↑ Prieto, Moisés (2021-09-19). Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century: Conceptualisations, Experiences, Transfers. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-43708-9.
↑ Vetter, Cesare (2021-09-19). "Garibaldi and the dictatorship: Features and cultural sources". Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century: Conceptualisations, Experiences, Transfers. Routledge. pp. 113–132. ISBN 978-1-000-43708-9.
↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Langiewicz, Maryan" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
↑ Stefan Kieniewicz, "Polish Society and the Insurrection of 1863." Past & Present 37 (1967): 130–148.
↑ "The First Philippine Republic". National Historical Commission. 7 September 2012. Archived from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2018. On June 20, Aguinaldo issued a decree organizing the judiciary, and on June 23, again upon Mabini’s advice, major changes were promulgated and implemented: change of government from Dictatorial to Revolutionary; change of the Executive title from Dictator to President
↑ Guriev, Sergei; Treisman, Daniel (5 April 2022). Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-21141-1.
↑ "Dictator: Media Code for 'Government We Don't Like'". FAIR. 2019-04-11. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-04-07.
↑ "Idi Amin: a byword for brutality". News24. 2003-07-21. Archived from the original on 2008-06-05. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
↑ Lloyd, Lorna (2007). Diplomacy with a Difference: The Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880–2006. University of Michigan: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 239. ISBN 978-90-04-15497-1.

External links

Dictatorship- Encyclopedia Britannica

[1] Robertson, David Professor (22 April 2015). A Dictionary of Modern Politics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-63943-5.

[auto-2] 2.0 ^2.1 "Lessons in On-Line Reference PublishingMerriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-WebsterMerriam-Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus. Merriam-WebsterMerriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia. Merriam-Webster". The Library Quarterly. 71 (3): 392–399. July 2001. doi:10.1086/603287. ISSN 0024-2519. S2CID 148183387.

[3] Papaioannou, Kostadis; vanZanden, Jan Luiten (2015). "The Dictator Effect: How long years in office affect economic development". Journal of Institutional Economics. 11 (1): 111–139. doi:10.1017/S1744137414000356. hdl:1874/329292. S2CID 154309029.

[4] Olson, Mancur (1993). "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development". American Political Science Review. 87 (3): 567–576. doi:10.2307/2938736. JSTOR 2938736. S2CID 145312307.

[5] "Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, dicto". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-17.

[6] "Oxford English Dictionary".

[7] Le Glay, Marcel. (2009). A history of Rome. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8327-7. OCLC 760889060.

[8] Wilson, Mark B. (2021). Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780472132669.

[9] Wilson, Mark B. (2021). Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 330. ISBN 9780472132669.

[10] Freedom in The World 2017 – Populists and Autocrats: The Dual Threat to Global Democracy Archived 2017-07-27 at the Wayback Machine by Freedom House, January 31, 2017

[11] "Democracy Index 2017 – Economist Intelligence Unit" (PDF). EIU.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.

[12] Macartney, Carlile Aylmer (September 15, 2020). Lajos Kossuth. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2020.

[13] Riall, Lucy (20 October 2008). Garibaldi. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17651-3.

[14] Davies, Norman (31 May 2001). Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-164713-0.

[15] "The brutal central African dictator whose playboy son faces French corruption trial". The Independent. 12 September 2016.

[16] "The Five Worst Leaders In Africa". Forbes. 9 February 2012.

[17] Treisman, Daniel; Guriev, Sergei (4 April 2023). Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-22447-3.

[guardian_obit-18] Keatley, Patrick (18 August 2003). "Obituary: Idi Amin". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 2013-12-05. Retrieved 2008-03-18.

[19] "LIFE". 2 September 1940.

[20] Treisman, Daniel; Guriev, Sergei (4 April 2023). Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-22447-3.

[21] "Autocratic Legalism | the University of Chicago Law Review".

[22] "Atatürk, Ghazi Mustapha Kemal (1881–1938)". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-09-18.

[shapiro-23] Shapiro, Susan; Shapiro, Ronald (2004). The Curtain Rises: Oral Histories of the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-1672-1. Archived from the original on 2021-05-12. Retrieved 2019-01-19. All Yugoslavs had educational opportunities, jobs, food, and housing regardless of nationality. Tito, seen by most as a benevolent dictator, brought peaceful co-existence to the Balkan region, a region historically synonymous with factionalism.

[24] Miller, Matt (2012-05-02). "What Singapore can teach us". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2015-11-25.

[25] Thomas, Hugh (1977). The Spanish Civil War. Harper & Row. pp. 421–424. ISBN 978-0-06-014278-0.

[26] Dinges, John (26 September 2023). Our Man in Panama: The Shrewd Rise and Brutal Fall of Manuel Noriega. Open Road Media. ISBN 978-1-5040-8719-3.

[27] Morstein, Marx Fritz; et al. (March 2007). Propaganda and Dictatorship. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-1-4067-4724-9.

[28] Hamil, Hugh M., ed. (1992). "Introduction". Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-8061-2428-5.

[29] Moradiellos, Enrique (18 December 2017). Franco: Anatomy of a Dictator. Bloomsbury. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-78673-300-9.

[30] "Gulag Prisoner Population Statistics from 1934 to 1953." Wasatch.edu. Wasatch, n.d. Web. 16 July 2016: "According to a 1993 study of Soviet archival data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953. However, taking into account that it was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or on the point of death, the actual Gulag death toll was somewhat higher, amounting to 1,258,537 in 1934–53, or 1.6 million deaths during the whole period from 1929 to 1953.."

[31] Wang, Sally (18 August 2012). "Remembering the dark days of China's Cultural Revolution". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2018-06-09. Retrieved 2021-07-15.

[32] Constable, Pamela; Valenzuela, Arturo (1993-05-04). Nation of Enemies Chile Under Pinochet. W.W Norton & Company. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-393-30985-0.

[33] "The Holocaust". The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Archived from the original on 2021-07-15. Retrieved 2021-07-15.

[34] ""Top 15 Toppled Dictators". Time. 20 October 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-08-24. Retrieved 4 March 2017.

[35] Branigin, William (1998-04-17). "ARCHITECT OF GENOCIDE WAS UNREPENTANT TO THE END". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2025-11-21.

[:4-36] Beeston, Richard (18 January 2010). "Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore". The Times. Archived from the original on 23 January 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2013.

[37] The Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Barwar, Geoffrey Khan, 2008, pp. 6, ISBN 9789047443490

[38] "Crisis in the Gulf, by George Bush, Saddam Hussein, et alia. As Told to The New York Times". Postmodern Culture. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2026.

[scholar_and_patriot-39] "Scholar and Patriot". Manchester University Press. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2020 – via Google Books.

[Garibaldi_on_Encyclopædia_Britannica-40] "Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary)". Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.

[41] Prieto, Moisés (2021-09-19). Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century: Conceptualisations, Experiences, Transfers. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-43708-9.

[42] Vetter, Cesare (2021-09-19). "Garibaldi and the dictatorship: Features and cultural sources". Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century: Conceptualisations, Experiences, Transfers. Routledge. pp. 113–132. ISBN 978-1-000-43708-9.

[43] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Langiewicz, Maryan" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[44] Stefan Kieniewicz, "Polish Society and the Insurrection of 1863." Past & Present 37 (1967): 130–148.

[aguinaldo-45] "The First Philippine Republic". National Historical Commission. 7 September 2012. Archived from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2018. On June 20, Aguinaldo issued a decree organizing the judiciary, and on June 23, again upon Mabini’s advice, major changes were promulgated and implemented: change of government from Dictatorial to Revolutionary; change of the Executive title from Dictator to President

[46] Guriev, Sergei; Treisman, Daniel (5 April 2022). Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-21141-1.

[47] "Dictator: Media Code for 'Government We Don't Like'". FAIR. 2019-04-11. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-04-07.

[Byword-48] "Idi Amin: a byword for brutality". News24. 2003-07-21. Archived from the original on 2008-06-05. Retrieved 2007-12-02.

[49] Lloyd, Lorna (2007). Diplomacy with a Difference: The Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880–2006. University of Michigan: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 239. ISBN 978-90-04-15497-1.

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@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{For-multi|the ancient Roman title|Roman dictator|other uses}}
 {{Pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
-[[File:Historical dictators.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|20th-century leaders typically described as dictators (''from left to right and top to bottom''): [[Joseph Stalin]] of the Soviet Union; [[Adolf Hitler]] of Nazi Germany; [[Augusto Pinochet]] of Chile; [[Mao Zedong]] of China; [[Benito Mussolini]] of Italy; and [[Kim Il Sung]] of North Korea.]]
+[[File:Historical dictators.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|20th-century leaders typically described as dictators (''from left to right and top to bottom''): [[Joseph Stalin]] of the Soviet Union; [[Adolf Hitler]] of Germany; [[Augusto Pinochet]] of Chile; [[Mao Zedong]] of China; [[Benito Mussolini]] of Italy; and [[Kim Il Sung]] of North Korea]]
-[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Julius Caesar]] outmaneuvered his opponents in ancient Rome to install himself as dictator for life.]]
-A '''dictator''' is a political leader who possesses absolute [[Power (social and political)|power]]. A [[dictatorship]] is a state ruled by one dictator or by a [[polity]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |date=July 2001 |title=Lessons in On-Line Reference Publishing''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus''. Merriam-Webster''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia''. Merriam-Webster |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/603287 |journal=The Library Quarterly |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=392–399 |doi=10.1086/603287 |s2cid=148183387 |issn=0024-2519|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The word originated as the title of a [[Roman dictator]] elected by the [[Roman Senate]] to rule the republic in [[Justitium|times of emergency]].<ref name="auto"/> Like the terms "''[[tyrant]]''" and "''[[Autocracy|autocrat]]''", ''dictator'' came to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive rule. In modern usage, the term ''dictator'' is generally used to describe a leader who holds or abuses an extraordinary amount of personal power.
+A '''dictator''' is a political leader who possesses absolute [[Power (social and political)|power]]. A [[dictatorship]] is defined as a state ruled by a dictator.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Robertson | first1=David Professor | title=A Dictionary of Modern Politics | date=22 April 2015 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-1-317-63943-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B454CAAAQBAJ&dq=%22dictatorship%22+%22dictionary%22&pg=PA145 }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |date=July 2001 |title=Lessons in On-Line Reference Publishing''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus''. Merriam-Webster''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia''. Merriam-Webster |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/603287 |journal=The Library Quarterly |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=392–399 |doi=10.1086/603287 |s2cid=148183387 |issn=0024-2519|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The word originated as the title of a [[Roman dictator]] elected by the [[Roman Senate]] to rule the republic in [[Justitium|times of emergency]].<ref name="auto"/> Like the terms "''[[tyrant]]''" and "''[[Autocracy|autocrat]]''", ''dictator'' came to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive rule. In modern usage, the term ''dictator'' is generally used to describe a leader who holds or abuses an extraordinary amount of personal power.
 Dictatorships are often characterised by some of the following: suspension of elections and [[civil liberties]]; proclamation of a [[state of emergency]]; [[rule by decree]]; [[political repression|repression of political opponents]]; not abiding by the procedures of the [[rule of law]]; and the existence of a [[cult of personality]] centered on the leader. Dictatorships are often [[one-party state|one-party]] or [[dominant-party system|dominant-party]] states.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Papaioannou|first=Kostadis|date=2015|title=The Dictator Effect: How long years in office affect economic development|journal=Journal of Institutional Economics|volume=11|issue=1|pages=111–139|doi=10.1017/S1744137414000356|author2=vanZanden, Jan Luiten|hdl=1874/329292 |s2cid=154309029|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development|last=Olson|first=Mancur|date=1993|journal=[[American Political Science Review]]|volume=87|issue=3|pages=567–576|doi=10.2307/2938736|jstor=2938736|s2cid=145312307 }}</ref> A wide variety of leaders coming to power in different kinds of regimes, such as one-party or dominant-party states and civilian governments under a personal rule, have been described as dictators.
@@ Line 12: / Line 11: @@
 == Etymology ==
+[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Julius Caesar]] outmaneuvered his opponents in ancient Rome to install himself as dictator for life.]]
 {{main|Roman dictator}}
-The word ''dictator'' comes from the [[Latin]] word ''dictātor'', [[agent noun]] from ''dictare'' (say repeatedly, assert, order).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, dicto |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=dicto |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/52304?p=emailAOE6bjQCOi1ZQ&d=52304}}</ref> A dictator was a [[Roman magistrate]] given sole power for a limited duration. Originally an emergency legal appointment in the [[Roman Republic]] and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan culture]], the term ''dictator'' did not have the negative meaning it has now.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Le Glay, Marcel.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/760889060|title=A history of Rome|date=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8327-7|oclc=760889060|access-date=2020-05-21|archive-date=2020-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725132827/http://worldcat.org/oclc/760889060|url-status=live}}</ref> It started to get its modern negative meaning with [[Sulla|Cornelius Sulla]]'s ascension to the dictatorship following [[Sulla's civil war]], making himself the first Dictator in Rome in more than a century (during which the office was ostensibly abolished) as well as ''de facto'' eliminating the time limit and need of senatorial acclamation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Mark B. |title=Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship |date=2021 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=9780472132669 |page=325 }}</ref>
+The word ''dictator'' comes from the [[Latin]] word ''dictātor'', [[agent noun]] from ''dictare'' (say repeatedly, assert, order).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, dicto |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=dicto |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/52304?p=emailAOE6bjQCOi1ZQ&d=52304}}</ref> A dictator was a [[Roman magistrate]] given sole power for a limited duration. Originally an emergency legal appointment in the [[Roman Republic]] and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan culture]], the term ''dictator'' did not have the negative meaning it has now.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Le Glay, Marcel.|title=A history of Rome|date=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8327-7|oclc=760889060}}</ref> It started to get its modern negative meaning with [[Sulla|Cornelius Sulla]]'s ascension to the dictatorship following [[Sulla's civil war]], making himself the first Dictator in Rome in more than a century (during which the office was ostensibly abolished) as well as ''de facto'' eliminating the time limit and need of senatorial acclamation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Mark B. |title=Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship |date=2021 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=9780472132669 |page=325 }}</ref>
 He avoided a major constitutional crisis by resigning the office after about one year, dying a few years later. [[Julius Caesar]] followed Sulla's example in 49 BC and in February 44 BC was proclaimed {{lang|la|[[Dictator perpetuo]]}}, "Dictator in perpetuity", officially doing away with any limitations on his power, which he kept until [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|his assassination]] the following month. Following Caesar's assassination, his heir [[Augustus]] was offered the title of dictator, but he declined it. Later successors also declined the title of dictator, and usage of the title soon diminished among Roman rulers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Mark B. |title=Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship |date=2021 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=9780472132669 |page=330 }}</ref>
@@ Line 28: / Line 28: @@
 }}
-As late as the second half of the 19th century, the term ''dictator'' had occasional positive implications. For example, during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]], the national leader [[Lajos Kossuth]] was often referred to as dictator, without any negative connotations, by his supporters and detractors alike, although his official title was that of regent-president.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lajos-Kossuth|title=Lajos Kossuth|first=Carlile Aylmer|last=Macartney|publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|date=September 15, 2020|access-date=October 31, 2020|archive-date=November 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101191955/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lajos-Kossuth|url-status=live}}</ref> When creating a provisional executive in Sicily during the [[Expedition of the Thousand]] in 1860, [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] officially assumed the title of "dictator" (see [[Dictatorship of Garibaldi]]). Shortly afterwards, during the 1863 [[January Uprising|January uprising]] in Poland, "Dictator" was also the official title of four leaders, the first being [[Ludwik Mierosławski]].
+As late as the second half of the 19th century, the term ''dictator'' had occasional positive implications. For example, during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]], the national leader [[Lajos Kossuth]] was often referred to as dictator, without any negative connotations, by his supporters and detractors alike, although his official title was that of regent-president.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lajos-Kossuth|title=Lajos Kossuth|first=Carlile Aylmer|last=Macartney|publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|date=September 15, 2020|access-date=October 31, 2020|archive-date=November 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101191955/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lajos-Kossuth|url-status=live}}</ref> When creating a provisional executive in Sicily during the [[Expedition of the Thousand]] in 1860, [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] [[Dictatorship of Giuseppe Garibaldi|officially assumed]] the title of "dictator".<ref>{{cite book | last1=Riall | first1=Lucy | title=Garibaldi | date=20 October 2008 | publisher=Yale University Press | isbn=978-0-300-17651-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awBw_5TZOyUC&dq=garibaldi+dictatorship&pg=PA228 }}</ref> Shortly afterwards, during the 1863 [[January Uprising|January uprising]] in Poland, "Dictator" was also the official title of four leaders, the first being [[Ludwik Mierosławski]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Davies | first1=Norman | title=Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present | date=31 May 2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-164713-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWi-WLvY_v0C&dq=ludwik+mieros%C5%82awski+dictatorship&pg=RA2-PT63 }}</ref>
-[[File:Teodoro Obiang.png|thumb|upright|left|[[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]] of Equatorial Guinea is Africa's longest serving dictator.<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/teodoro-obiang-nguema-mbasogo-equatorial-guinea-french-corruption-trial-a7238501.html The brutal central African dictator whose playboy son faces French corruption trial]". ''[[The Independent]]''. 12 September 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.forbes.com/sites/mfonobongnsehe/2012/02/09/the-five-worst-leaders-in-africa/ The Five Worst Leaders In Africa]". ''[[Forbes]]''. 9 February 2012.</ref>]]
+[[File:Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo on September 26, 2024 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]] of Equatorial Guinea, having served since 1979, is the longest-serving living dictator.<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/teodoro-obiang-nguema-mbasogo-equatorial-guinea-french-corruption-trial-a7238501.html The brutal central African dictator whose playboy son faces French corruption trial]". ''[[The Independent]]''. 12 September 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.forbes.com/sites/mfonobongnsehe/2012/02/09/the-five-worst-leaders-in-africa/ The Five Worst Leaders In Africa]". ''[[Forbes]]''. 9 February 2012.</ref>]]
-Past that time, however, the term ''dictator'' assumed an invariably negative connotation. In popular usage, a ''dictatorship'' is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse against political opponents. Many dictators create a [[cult of personality]] around themselves and they have also come to grant themselves increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqiTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 | title=Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century | isbn=978-0-691-22447-3 | last1=Treisman | first1=Daniel | last2=Guriev | first2=Sergei | date=4 April 2023 | publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> For instance, [[Idi Amin|Idi Amin Dada]], who had been a British army lieutenant prior to [[Uganda]]'s independence from Britain in October 1962, subsequently styled himself "''[[Excellency|His Excellency]], [[President for Life]], [[Field marshal (Uganda)|Field Marshal]] [[Hajji|Al Hadji]] [[Doctor of Law|Doctor]]{{Ref label|Doctorate|A|}} Idi Amin Dada, VC,{{Ref label|VC|B|}} [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Military Cross|MC]], Conqueror of the [[British Empire]] in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular''".<ref name="guardian_obit">{{cite news |last=Keatley |first=Patrick |title=Obituary: Idi Amin |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/aug/18/guardianobituaries |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=18 August 2003 |access-date=2008-03-18 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205070235/http://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/aug/18/guardianobituaries |archive-date=2013-12-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the movie ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (1940), [[Charlie Chaplin]] satirized not only [[Adolf Hitler]] but the institution of dictatorship itself.
+Past that time, however, the term ''dictator'' assumed an invariably negative connotation. In popular usage, a ''dictatorship'' is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse against political opponents. Many dictators create a [[cult of personality]] around themselves and they have also come to grant themselves increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqiTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 | title=Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century | isbn=978-0-691-22447-3 | last1=Treisman | first1=Daniel | last2=Guriev | first2=Sergei | date=4 April 2023 | publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> For instance, [[Idi Amin]], who had served in the [[King's African Rifles]] prior to Ugandan independence from Britain in 1962, subsequently styled himself "''[[Excellency|His Excellency]], [[President for Life]], [[Field marshal (Uganda)|Field Marshal]] [[Hajji|Al Hadji]] [[Doctor of Law|Doctor]]{{Ref label|Doctorate|A|}} Idi Amin Dada, VC,{{Ref label|VC|B|}} [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Military Cross|MC]], Conqueror of the [[British Empire]] in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular''".<ref name="guardian_obit">{{cite news |last=Keatley |first=Patrick |title=Obituary: Idi Amin |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/aug/18/guardianobituaries |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=18 August 2003 |access-date=2008-03-18 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205070235/http://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/aug/18/guardianobituaries |archive-date=2013-12-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the movie ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (1940), [[Charlie Chaplin]] satirized not only [[Adolf Hitler]] but the institution of dictatorship itself.<ref>{{cite web | title=LIFE | date=2 September 1940 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUoEAAAAMBAJ&dq=the+great+dictator&pg=PA53 }}</ref>
 === Characteristics ===
+Dictators usually maintain power through [[political repression]] of any opposition and the consolidation of other influential or powerful members of society. The general public is controlled through [[indoctrination]] and [[propaganda]], and an autocracy may attempt to legitimize itself in the eyes of the public through appeals to [[Political Ideology|political ideology]], religion, or foreign hostility.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Treisman | first1=Daniel | last2=Guriev | first2=Sergei | title=Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century | date=4 April 2023 | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-0-691-22447-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqiTEAAAQBAJ&dq=dikotter%20dictators&pg=PA3 }}</ref> Some dictatorships establish legislatures, [[unfair election]]s, or [[show trial]]s to further exercise control while presenting the appearance of democracy.<ref>{{cite web | title=Autocratic Legalism &#124; the University of Chicago Law Review | url=https://lawreview.uchicago.edu/print-archive/autocratic-legalism }}</ref>
 ==== Benevolent dictatorship ====
 {{Main|Benevolent dictatorship}}
-A [[benevolent dictatorship]] refers to a government in which an authoritarian leader exercises absolute political power over the state but is perceived to do so with regard for the benefit of the population as a whole, standing in contrast to the decidedly malevolent stereotype of a dictator. A benevolent dictator may allow for some [[civil liberties]] or [[democracy|democratic decision-making]] to exist, such as through public [[referendum]]s or [[elect]]ed [[Representative democracy|representative]]s with limited power, and often makes preparations for a [[Democratization|transition to genuine democracy]] during or after their term. The label has been applied to leaders such as [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] of [[Turkey]]	(1923–38),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atatürk, Ghazi Mustapha Kemal (1881–1938) {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ataturk-ghazi-mustapha-kemal-1881-1938 |access-date=2023-09-18 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[Josip Broz Tito]] of [[SFR Yugoslavia]] (1953–80),<ref name="shapiro">{{cite book |last1=Shapiro |first1=Susan |last2=Shapiro |first2=Ronald |title=The Curtain Rises: Oral Histories of the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe |publisher=McFarland |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7864-1672-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCqWFQ1WKlkC&pg=PA180 |ref=Shapiro_2004 |access-date=2019-01-19 |archive-date=2021-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512060314/https://books.google.com/books?id=oCqWFQ1WKlkC&pg=PA180 |url-status=live }}<br />"...All Yugoslavs had educational opportunities, jobs, food, and housing regardless of nationality. Tito, seen by most as a benevolent dictator, brought peaceful co-existence to the Balkan region, a region historically synonymous with factionalism."</ref> and [[Lee Kuan Yew]] of Singapore (1959–90).<ref>{{Cite news |title=What Singapore can teach us |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/what-singapore-can-teach-us/2012/05/02/gIQAlQEGwT_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2012-05-02 |access-date=2015-11-25 |issn=0190-8286 |first=Matt |last=Miller |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311045232/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/what-singapore-can-teach-us/2012/05/02/gIQAlQEGwT_story.html |archive-date=2016-03-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+A [[benevolent dictatorship]] is a concept that describes a government in which an authoritarian leader exercises absolute political power over the state but is perceived to do so with regard for the benefit of the population as a whole, standing in contrast to the decidedly malevolent stereotype of a dictator. The label has been applied to leaders such as [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] of [[Turkey]] (1923–1938),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atatürk, Ghazi Mustapha Kemal (1881–1938)  |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ataturk-ghazi-mustapha-kemal-1881-1938 |access-date=2023-09-18 |website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[Josip Broz Tito]] of [[SFR Yugoslavia]] (1953–1980),<ref name="shapiro">{{cite book |last1=Shapiro |first1=Susan |last2=Shapiro |first2=Ronald |title=The Curtain Rises: Oral Histories of the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe |publisher=McFarland |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7864-1672-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCqWFQ1WKlkC&pg=PA180 |ref=Shapiro_2004 |access-date=2019-01-19 |archive-date=2021-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512060314/https://books.google.com/books?id=oCqWFQ1WKlkC&pg=PA180 |url-status=live |quote=All Yugoslavs had educational opportunities, jobs, food, and housing regardless of nationality. Tito, seen by most as a benevolent dictator, brought peaceful co-existence to the Balkan region, a region historically synonymous with factionalism.}}</ref> and [[Lee Kuan Yew]] of Singapore (1959–1990).<ref>{{Cite news |title=What Singapore can teach us |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/what-singapore-can-teach-us/2012/05/02/gIQAlQEGwT_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2012-05-02 |access-date=2015-11-25 |issn=0190-8286 |first=Matt |last=Miller |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311045232/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/what-singapore-can-teach-us/2012/05/02/gIQAlQEGwT_story.html |archive-date=2016-03-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 ==== Military roles ====
@@ Line 43: / Line 44: @@
 ==== Crowd manipulation ====
-Some dictators have been masters of [[crowd manipulation]], such as [[Benito Mussolini]] and Adolf Hitler. Others were more prosaic speakers, such as [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Francisco Franco]]. Typically, the dictator's people seize control of all media, censor or destroy the opposition, and give strong doses of propaganda daily, often built around a [[cult of personality]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Morstein |first=Marx Fritz |display-authors=etal |title=Propaganda and Dictatorship |publisher=Princeton UP |isbn=978-1-4067-4724-9|date=March 2007 }}</ref>
+Some dictators have preferred to use [[crowd manipulation]], such as [[Benito Mussolini]] and Adolf Hitler. Others were more prosaic speakers, such as [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Francisco Franco]]. Typically, the dictator's people seize control of all media, censor or destroy the opposition, and give strong doses of propaganda daily, often built around a [[cult of personality]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Morstein |first=Marx Fritz |display-authors=etal |title=Propaganda and Dictatorship |publisher=Princeton UP |isbn=978-1-4067-4724-9|date=March 2007 }}</ref>
-Mussolini and Hitler used similar titles referring to them as "the Leader". Mussolini used "Il [[Duce]]" and Hitler was generally referred to as "der [[Führer]]", both meaning 'Leader' in Italian and German respectively. Franco used a similar title, "El [[Caudillo]]" ("the Head", 'the chieftain').<ref>{{cite book|ref=Hamil|editor=Hamil, Hugh M. |title=Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America|publisher =University of Oklahoma Press|year= 1992|isbn=978-0-8061-2428-5|chapter=Introduction|pages=5–6}}</ref> In the case of Franco, the title "Caudillo" did have a longer history for political-military figures in both Latin America and Spain. Franco also used the phrase "[[By the Grace of God]]" on coinage or other material displaying him as ''Caudillo''.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhOMDwAAQBAJ&dq=by%20the%20grace%20of%20god%20franco&pg=PA43 | title=Franco: Anatomy of a Dictator | isbn=978-1-78673-300-9 | last1=Moradiellos | first1=Enrique | date=18 December 2017 | publisher=Bloomsbury }}</ref>
+Mussolini and Hitler used similar titles referring to them as "the Leader". Mussolini used "Il [[Duce]]" and Hitler was generally referred to as "der [[Führer]]", both meaning 'Leader' in Italian and German respectively. Franco used a similar title, "El [[Caudillo]]" ("the Head", 'the chieftain').<ref>{{cite book|ref=Hamil|editor=Hamil, Hugh M. |title=Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America|publisher =University of Oklahoma Press|year= 1992|isbn=978-0-8061-2428-5|chapter=Introduction|pages=5–6}}</ref> In the case of Franco, the title "Caudillo" did have a longer history for political-military figures in both Spain and Latin America. Franco also used the phrase "[[By the Grace of God]]" on coinage or other material displaying him as ''Caudillo''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moradiellos |first1=Enrique |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhOMDwAAQBAJ&dq=by%20the%20grace%20of%20god%20franco&pg=PA43 |title=Franco: Anatomy of a Dictator |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-78673-300-9 |pages=43}}</ref>
 ==== Human rights abuses, war crimes and genocides ====
-[[File:0718-Syria-Defectors-reemerge.jpg|thumb|Under Syrian dictator [[Bashar al-Assad]], [[Syrian military]] inflicted industrial-scale atrocities on civilian population during the [[Syrian civil war]]. These include hundreds of chemical attacks, such as the [[Ghouta chemical attack]], the largest chemical attack in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite news |author=S.B. |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |title=Syria's war: If this isn't a red line, what is? |newspaper=The Economist |date=21 August 2013 |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220174814/http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |archive-date=20 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja|title=Syria gas attack: death toll at 1,400 worst since Halabja|work=The Week|date=22 August 2013|access-date=24 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825115627/http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja|archive-date=25 August 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=D. Ward |first=Kenneth |date=September 2021 |title=Syria, Russia, and the Global Chemical Weapons Crisis |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-09/features/syria-russia-global-chemical-weapons-crisis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708153519/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-09/features/syria-russia-global-chemical-weapons-crisis |archive-date=8 July 2023 |website=Arms Control Association}}</ref>]]
 Over time, dictators have been known to use tactics that violate human rights. For example, under the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, government policy was enforced by [[secret police]] and the [[Gulag]] system of prison labour camps. Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time. Data collected from Soviet archives gives the death toll from Gulags as 1,053,829.<ref>"Gulag Prisoner Population Statistics from 1934 to 1953." ''Wasatch.edu''. Wasatch, n.d. Web. 16 July 2016: "According to a 1993 study of Soviet archival data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953. However, taking into account that it was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or on the point of death, the actual Gulag death toll was somewhat higher, amounting to 1,258,537 in 1934–53, or 1.6 million deaths during the whole period from 1929 to 1953.."</ref> The [[International Criminal Court]] issued an arrest warrant for [[Sudan]]'s military dictator [[Omar al-Bashir]] over alleged [[War in Darfur|war crimes]] in [[Darfur]].
-Similar crimes were committed during [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]]'s [[History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)|rule]] over the [[China|People's Republic of China]] during China's [[Cultural Revolution]], where Mao set out to purge dissidents, primarily through the use of youth groups strongly committed to [[Mao Zedong's cult of personality|his cult of personality]],<ref>{{cite web|date=18 August 2012|title=Remembering the dark days of China's Cultural Revolution|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1017272/remembering-dark-days-chinas-cultural-revolution|access-date=2021-07-15|website=South China Morning Post|language=en|archive-date=2018-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609084717/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1017272/remembering-dark-days-chinas-cultural-revolution|url-status=live}}</ref> and during [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s [[Government Junta of Chile (1973)|junta]] in [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)|Chile]].<ref>[[Pamela Constable]] and [[Arturo Valenzuela]], ''A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet,'' New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1993., p. 91</ref> Some dictators have been associated with [[genocide]] on certain races or groups; the most notable and wide-reaching example is [[the Holocaust]], [[Adolf Hitler]]'s genocide of eleven million people, of whom six million were Jews.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Holocaust|url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/holocaust|access-date=2021-07-15|website=The National WWII Museum {{!}} New Orleans|language=en|archive-date=2021-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715152635/https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/holocaust|url-status=live}}</ref> Later on in [[Democratic Kampuchea]], [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kampuchea|General Secretary]] [[Pol Pot]] and his policies killed an estimated 1.7&nbsp;million people (out of a population of 7 million) during his four-year dictatorship.<ref>"{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097449,00.html |title=Top 15 Toppled Dictators |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=20 October 2011 |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824000146/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097449,00.html |archive-date=2013-08-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As a result, Pol Pot is sometimes described as "the [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] of Cambodia" and "a genocidal tyrant".<ref>William Branigin, [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-664002.html Architect of Genocide Was Unrepentant to the End] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509211319/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-664002.html |date=2013-05-09 }} ''[[The Washington Post]]'', April 17, 1998</ref>
+Similar crimes were committed during [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]]'s [[History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)|rule]] over the [[China|People's Republic of China]] during China's [[Cultural Revolution]], where Mao set out to purge dissidents, primarily through the use of youth groups strongly committed to [[Mao Zedong's cult of personality|his cult of personality]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Wang |first=Sally |date=18 August 2012 |title=Remembering the dark days of China's Cultural Revolution |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1017272/remembering-dark-days-chinas-cultural-revolution |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609084717/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1017272/remembering-dark-days-chinas-cultural-revolution |archive-date=2018-06-09 |access-date=2021-07-15 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref> and during [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s [[Government Junta of Chile (1973)|junta]] in [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)|Chile]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Constable |first1=Pamela |author-link1=Pamela Constable |url=https://archive.org/details/nationofenemiesc0000cons/page/8/mode/2up |title=Nation of Enemies Chile Under Pinochet |last2=Valenzuela |first2=Arturo |author-link2=Arturo Valenzuela |date=1993-05-04 |publisher=W.W Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-30985-0 |pages=91 |language=en}}</ref> Some dictators have been associated with [[genocide]] on certain races or groups; the most notable and wide-reaching example is [[the Holocaust]], [[Adolf Hitler]]'s genocide of eleven million people, of whom six million were Jews.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Holocaust|url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/holocaust|access-date=2021-07-15|website=The National WWII Museum {{!}} New Orleans|language=en|archive-date=2021-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715152635/https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/holocaust|url-status=live}}</ref> Later on in [[Democratic Kampuchea]], [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kampuchea|General Secretary]] [[Pol Pot]] and his policies killed an estimated 1.7&nbsp;million people (out of a population of 7 million) during his four-year dictatorship.<ref>"{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097449,00.html |title=Top 15 Toppled Dictators |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=20 October 2011 |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824000146/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097449,00.html |archive-date=2013-08-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As a result, Pol Pot is sometimes described as "the Hitler of Cambodia" and "a genocidal tyrant".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Branigin |first=William |date=1998-04-17 |title=ARCHITECT OF GENOCIDE WAS UNREPENTANT TO THE END |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/04/17/architect-of-genocide-was-unrepentant-to-the-end/278097de-ad97-49bc-a25a-faab03e8f3e5/ |access-date=2025-11-21 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> In [[Ba'athist Iraq]], [[Saddam Hussein]] launched the [[Anfal campaign]] against the Kurdish population.<ref name=":4">{{cite news |last=Beeston |first=Richard |date=18 January 2010 |title=Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore |work=The Times |url=https://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article6991512.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=28 August 2013 |archive-url=http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20100123105309/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article6991512.ece |archive-date=23 January 2010}}</ref> Although primarily targeting Kurds, other non-Arabs also fell victim to the Anfal campaign.<ref>The Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Barwar, Geoffrey Khan, 2008, pp. 6, {{ISBN|9789047443490}}</ref> Due to this, Saddam is often nicknamed "The Hitler of the Middle East".<ref>{{Cite web
+ |title= Crisis in the Gulf, by George Bush, Saddam Hussein, et alia. As Told to The New York Times
+ |website= Postmodern Culture
+ |date= 26 September 2013
+ |url= https://www.pomoculture.org/2013/09/26/crisis-in-the-gulf-by-george-bush-saddam-hussein-et-alia-as-told-tothe-new-york-times/
+ |access-date= 24 January 2026
+}}</ref>
-=== Modern usage in formal titles ===
+===Usage in formal titles ===
 [[File:Giuseppe Garibaldi portrait2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times<ref name="scholar and patriot">{{Cite web|title=Scholar and Patriot|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWK7AAAAIAAJ&q=Garibaldi%2Bone%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bgreatest%2Bgenerals%2Bof%2Bmodern%2Btime&pg=PAPA133|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328152801/https://books.google.com/books?id=iWK7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PAPA133&q=Garibaldi%2Bone%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bgreatest%2Bgenerals%2Bof%2Bmodern%2Btime#v=onepage&q=Garibaldi%2Bone%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bgreatest%2Bgenerals%2Bof%2Bmodern%2Btime&f=false|archive-date=28 March 2024|access-date=5 April 2020|publisher=Manchester University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe,<ref name="Garibaldi on Encyclopædia Britannica">{{Cite web|title=Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary)|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226091529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi|archive-date=26 February 2014|access-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> who fought in many military campaigns that led to [[Italian unification]]. He proclaimed himself [[Dictatorial Government of Sicily|dictator of Sicily]] in 1860 during the [[Expedition of the Thousand]]]]
-Because of its negative and pejorative connotations, modern authoritarian leaders very rarely (if ever) use the term ''dictator'' in their formal titles, instead they most often simply have title of [[President (government title)|president]]. In the 19th century, however, its official usage was more common:<ref>Moisés Prieto, ed. ''Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century: Conceptualisations, Experiences, Transfers'' (Routledge, 2021).</ref>
+Because of its negative and pejorative connotations, modern authoritarian leaders very rarely (if ever) use the term ''dictator'' in their formal titles, instead they most often simply have title of [[President (government title)|president]]. In the 19th century, however, its official usage was more common:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prieto |first=Moisés |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z03EAAAQBAJ |title=Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century: Conceptualisations, Experiences, Transfers |date=2021-09-19 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-43708-9 |language=en}}</ref>
-* The [[Dictatorial Government of Sicily]] (27 May – 4 November 1860) was a provisional executive government appointed by [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] to rule [[Sicily]] during the [[Expedition of the Thousand]]. The government ended when [[Sicily#Italian unification|Sicily's annexation]] into the Kingdom of Italy was ratified by plebiscite.<ref>Cesare Vetter, "Garibaldi and the dictatorship: Features and cultural sources." in ''Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century'' (Routledge, 2021) pp. 113–132.</ref>
+* The [[Dictatorial Government of Sicily]] (27 May – 4 November 1860) was a provisional executive government appointed by [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] to rule [[Sicily]] during the [[Expedition of the Thousand]]. The government ended when [[Sicily#Italian unification|Sicily's annexation]] into the Kingdom of Italy was ratified by plebiscite.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vetter |first=Cesare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z03EAAAQBAJ |title=Dictatorship in the Nineteenth Century: Conceptualisations, Experiences, Transfers |date=2021-09-19 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-43708-9 |pages=113–132 |language=en |chapter=Garibaldi and the dictatorship: Features and cultural sources}}</ref>
 * [[Marian Langiewicz]] of Poland proclaimed himself Dictator and attempted (unsuccessfully) to form a Polish government in March 1863.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Langiewicz, Maryan}}</ref>
 * [[Romuald Traugutt]] was Dictator of Poland from 17 October 1863 to 10 April 1864.<ref>Stefan Kieniewicz, "Polish Society and the Insurrection of 1863." ''Past & Present'' 37 (1967): 130–148.</ref>
 * The [[Dictatorial Government of the Philippines]] (24 May – 23 June 1898) was an insurgent government in the Philippines which was headed by [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], who formally held the title of Dictator.<ref name=aguinaldo>{{cite web|title=The First Philippine Republic|url=http://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/|publisher=National Historical Commission|access-date=26 May 2018|date=7 September 2012|quote=On June 20, Aguinaldo issued a decree organizing the judiciary, and on June 23, again upon Mabini’s advice, major changes were promulgated and implemented: change of government from Dictatorial to Revolutionary; change of the Executive title from Dictator to President|archive-date=27 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127011004/http://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/|url-status=live}}</ref> The dictatorial government was superseded by the [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898–1899)|revolutionary government]] with Aguinaldo as president.
-=== Criticism ===
+==== As a term of abuse ====
+In modern times the word ''dictator'' is often applied to leaders who engage in or promote antidemocratic policies, or attempt to establish a repressive regime by force. In the 21st century, the heads of various countries that have undergone [[democratic backsliding]] have been referred to as dictators.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Guriev | first1=Sergei | last2=Treisman | first2=Daniel | title=Spin Dictators: The Changing Face of Tyranny in the 21st Century | date=5 April 2022 | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-0-691-21141-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ThCEAAAQBAJ&dq=spin%20dictators&pg=PA33 }}</ref>
 The usage of the term ''dictator'' in western media has been criticized by the left-leaning organization [[Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting]] as "Code for Government We Don't Like". According to them, leaders that would generally be considered authoritarian but are allied with the United States such as [[Paul Biya]] or [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] are rarely referred to as "dictators", while leaders of countries opposed to U.S. policy such as [[Nicolás Maduro]] or [[Bashar al-Assad]] have the term applied to them much more liberally.<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-04-11|title=Dictator: Media Code for 'Government We Don't Like'|url=https://fair.org/home/dictator-media-code-for-government-we-dont-like/|access-date=2021-04-07|website=FAIR|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416210800/https://fair.org/home/dictator-media-code-for-government-we-dont-like/|url-status=live}}</ref>
@@ Line 70: / Line 77: @@
 {{Div col}}
 * [[Absolute monarchy]]
+* [[Authoritarianism]]
 * [[Benevolent dictator]]
 * [[Dictator novel]]
@@ Line 79: / Line 87: @@
 * [[Supreme Leader (disambiguation)]]
 * [[Totalitarianism]]
-* [[Communism]]
-* [[Individualism]]
 {{Div col end}}
@@ Line 107: / Line 113: @@
 * {{Cite book |last=Harford Vargas |first=Jennifer |year=2018 |title=Forms of Dictatorship: Power, Narrative, and Authoritarianism in the Latina/o Novel |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190642853 |oclc=983824496}}
 * {{Cite book |editor-last=Im |editor-first=Chi-hyŏn |editor2=Karen Petrone |year=2010 |title=Gender Politics and Mass Dictatorship: Global Perspectives |location=Basingstoke, UK |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9780230242043 |oclc=700131132}} * {{Cite book |editor-last=Kim |editor-first=Michael |editor2=Michael Schoenhals |editor3=Yong-Woo Kim |year=2013 |title=Mass Dictatorship and Modernity |location=Basingstoke, UK |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137304322 |oclc=810117713}}
-* {{Cite book |editor-last=Lüdtke |editor-first=Alf |year=2015 |title=Everyday Life in Mass Dictatorship: Collusion and Evasion |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137442765 |oclc=920469575}}
+* {{Cite book |editor-last=Lüdtke |editor-first=Alf |editor-link1=Alf Lüdtke|year=2015 |title=Everyday Life in Mass Dictatorship: Collusion and Evasion |location=New York |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=9781137442765 |oclc=920469575}}
 * {{Cite book |editor-last=Mainwaring |editor-first=Scott |editor2=Aníbal Pérez-Liñán |year=2014 |title=Democracies and Dictatorships in Latin America: Emergence, Survival, and Fall |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521190015 |oclc=851642671}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Barrington Jr. |year=1966 |title=Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World |url=https://archive.org/details/socialoriginsofd00barr |location=Boston |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=9780807050736 |oclc=28065698}}

Dictator: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 20:33, 18 May 2026

Contents

Etymology

Modern era

Characteristics

Benevolent dictatorship

Military roles

Crowd manipulation

Human rights abuses, war crimes and genocides

Usage in formal titles

As a term of abuse

See also

References

Informational notes

Citations

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Dictator: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 20:33, 18 May 2026

Etymology

Modern era

Characteristics

Benevolent dictatorship

Military roles

Crowd manipulation

Human rights abuses, war crimes and genocides

Usage in formal titles

As a term of abuse

See also

References

Informational notes

Citations

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

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