Francis Drake: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|English sailor and privateer (c. 1540 – 1596)}}

{{Infobox pirate

| honorific_prefix = [[Vice Admiral]]

| honorific_prefix = [[Vice-admiral (Royal Navy)|Vice-Admiral]]

| name = Sir Francis Drake

| image = Gheeraerts Francis Drake 1591.jpg

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|See list

|{{tree list}}

* [[Tudor conquest of Ireland~~|Anglo-Irish War~~]]

* [[Tudor conquest of Ireland]]

** [[Rathlin Island massacre]]

* [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)#Causes|Anglo-Spanish trade war]]

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}}

'''Sir Francis Drake''' ({{c.}} 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English [[Exploration|explorer]] and [[privateer]] best known for making the [[Francis Drake's circumnavigation|second circumnavigation of the world]] in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580 (being the first English expedition to accomplish this). He is also known for participating in the early English slaving voyages of his cousin, [[~~John_Hawkins_~~(~~naval_commander~~)|John Hawkins]], and [[~~John_Lovell_~~(~~slave_trader~~)|John Lovell]]. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the [[Spanish Armada]] as a [[vice admiral]].

'''Sir Francis Drake''' ({{c.}} 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English [[Exploration|explorer]] and [[privateer]] best known for making the [[Francis Drake's circumnavigation|second circumnavigation of the world]] in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580 (being the first English expedition to accomplish this). He is also known for participating in the early English slaving voyages of his cousin, [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|John Hawkins]], and [[John Lovell (slave trader)|John Lovell]]. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the [[Spanish Armada]] as a [[vice admiral]].

At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, [[William Hawkins (died c. 1554)|William Hawkins]], a prominent sea captain in [[Plymouth]]. In 1572, he set sail on his [[Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573|first independent mission]], privateering along the [[Spanish Main]]. Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to [[New Albion]], plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. [[Elizabeth I]] awarded Drake a [[Knight Bachelor|knighthood]] in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the ''[[Golden Hind]]''.

At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, [[William Hawkins (died c. 1554)|William Hawkins]], a prominent sea captain in [[Plymouth]]. In 1572, he set sail on his [[Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573|first independent mission]], privateering along the [[Spanish Main]]. Drake's circumnavigation began on 13 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to [[New Albion]], plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. [[Elizabeth I]] awarded Drake a [[Knight Bachelor|knighthood]] in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the ''[[Golden Hind]]''.

Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]] began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the [[English Armada]] in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.

Drake's circumnavigation of the Earth inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]] began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the [[English Armada]] in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.

Drake was a [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP) for three constituencies: [[Camelford (UK Parliament constituency)|Camelford]] in 1581, [[Bossiney (UK Parliament constituency)|Bossiney]] in 1584, and [[Plymouth (UK Parliament constituency)|Plymouth]] in 1593. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a [[pirate]], known to them as El Draque ("The Dragon" in old Spanish).<ref name="Edmundson2009">{{cite book |last1=Edmundson |first1=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVjCAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |title=A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230101210 |page=9 |quote=The fame of his exploits spread to the extent that by the mid-1570s, Philip began to refer to him as ''Draque'', ''Francisco Draque'', ''El Draque'', and even more intimately as ''El Capitán Francisco''. Educated Spaniards called him ''Francisco Draguez'', and Spanish mothers warned their children that if they did not behave, El Draco would come and take them away – a play on words, since ''el drake'' in old Spanish means "the dragon", derived from the Latin ''Draco''.}}</ref> He died of [[dysentery]] after his [[Drake's Assault on Panama|failed assault on Panama]] in January 1596.

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==Birth and early years==

[[File:sfdrake42.jpg|thumb|[[Portrait miniature]] by [[Nicholas Hilliard]], 1581, inscribed ''Aetatis suae 42, An(n)o D(omi)ni 1581'' ("42 years of his age, 1581 AD")]]

[[File:1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake.jpg| thumb | 1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake by Jodocus Hondius I]]

[[File:1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake.jpg|thumb|1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake by [[Jodocus Hondius|Jodocus Hondius I]]]]

Francis Drake was born at Crowndale Farm in [[Tavistock, Devon]], England.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=3}} His birth date is not formally recorded – such writers as [[E. F. Benson]] have claimed that he was born while the [[Thirty-nine Articles#Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles of 1539]] were in force,<ref name="Benson1927">{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Edward Frederic |title=Sir Francis Drake |date=1927 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zc4gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6}}</ref> but British naval historian [[Julian Corbett]], writing of [[William Camden]]'s account, on which this information is based, writes that "As a slip of memory, too, we must put down his difficult assertion that Edmund Drake was driven from [[Devonshire]] during a persecution under the [[Statute of the Six Articles|Six Articles Act of 1539]]."{{sfn|Corbett|1898|p=393}} His birth date is estimated from the wording of texts in contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the ''Judith''"<ref name="Campbell1841">{{cite book |title=Lives of the British Admirals and Naval History of Great Britain from the Time of Caesar to the Chinese War of 1841 Chiefly Abridged from the work of Dr. John Campbell |last=Campbell |first=John |author-link=John Campbell (author) |year=1841 |publisher=Richard Griffin & Co |location=Glasgow |isbn=978-0665347566 |oclc=12129656 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SD3M-bWc6a8C&pg=PA104 |access-date=30 August 2012 |archive-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125061454/https://books.google.com/books?id=SD3M-bWc6a8C&pg=PA104 |url-status=live }} Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age."</ref> (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of {{c.}} 1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a [[Portrait miniature|miniature]], painted by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in 1581, when he was allegedly 42, which would place his birth {{circa}} 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 52,<ref name="DNB1921">1921/22 edition of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', which quotes [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]]'s ''Life of Drake'' (1843) p. 5.</ref> would give a birth year of c. 1541.

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===Slave trade===

[[File:Thomas Cavendish (1560-92), Sir Francis Drake (1540?-96) and Sir John Hawkins (1532-95) RMG BHC2603.tiff|thumb|[[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] (left) with Sir Francis Drake (centre) and Sir [[Thomas Cavendish]]]]

[[File:Thomas Cavendish (1560-92), Sir Francis Drake (1540?-96) and Sir John Hawkins (1532-95) RMG BHC2603.tiff|thumb|[[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] (left) with Sir Francis Drake (centre), and Sir [[Thomas Cavendish]]]]

In 1562, the West African slave trade was a duopoly dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish. [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] devised a plan to break into that trade, and enlisted the aid of colleagues and family to finance his first slave voyage. Drake was not part of that group of financiers,{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=20}} though his presence as one of hundreds of seamen on Hawkins's first two slaving voyages has been assumed.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=21}} There is some anecdotal evidence to support Drake serving as a common seaman on the first two voyages, and good evidence of his presence for the last two of four slaving voyages made by Hawkins' ships between 1562 and 1569.{{sfn|Loades|2007}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=17}}<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023">{{cite web |author=|title=John Hawkins {{!}} Admiral, Privateer, Slave Trader |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/john-hawkins-admiral-privateer-slave-trader |website=www.rmg.co.uk |publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>

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Events worsened for the fleet as it faced storms, Spanish hostility, armed conflict, and finally a hurricane that separated one ship from the rest, and it had to find its own way home.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=22}} The remaining ships were forced into the port of [[San Juan de Ulúa]] near [[Veracruz (city)|Vera Cruz]] so they could make repairs. Soon afterward the newly appointed viceroy of New Spain, [[Martín Enríquez de Almanza]], arrived with a fleet of ships. While still negotiating to resupply and repair, Hawkins' ships were attacked by the Spanish ships in what became known as the [[Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568)|Battle of San Juan de Ulúa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strickrodt |first1=Silke |title=The British Transatlantic Slave Trade (4 vols.) |journal=The English Historical Review |date=1 February 2006 |volume=CXXI |issue=490 |pages=226–230 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cej026 }}</ref> The battle ended in an English defeat with all but two of the English ships lost. The Spanish launched a fireship against Hawkins' flagship ''Jesus of Lübeck'', and the crew of ''Minion'' in panic and fear cut the lines securing them to ''Jesus''. Hawkins was among those who jumped from the flagship's bulwarks to ''Minion'''s decks.<ref name="Childs2009">{{cite book |last1=Childs |first1=David |title=Tudor Sea Power: The Foundation of Greatness |year=2009 |publisher=Seaforth Publishing |isbn=978-1848320314 |page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe_RAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83}}</ref> Drake, by this time the captain of ''Judith'', fled leaving Hawkins behind. Hawkins escaped on ''Minion'' and limped back to England with dozens of his men dying along the way,{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=37}} and arriving with a crew of just 15.<ref name="RobertsRobertsBisson2016">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Clayton |last2=Roberts |first2=F. David |last3=Bisson |first3=Douglas |title=A History of England, Volume 1: Prehistory to 1714 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1315510002 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4uTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 |language=en}}</ref> Hundreds of English seamen were abandoned.{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=36}}

After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing the treasure they had accumulated. Drake denied both accusations asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=43}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=24}} The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=25}} Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath.<ref name="Sims2022">{{cite book |last1=Sims |first1=Jennifer E. |title=Decision Advantage: Intelligence in International Politics from the Spanish Armada to Cyberwar |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/44620/chapter-abstract/378612109 |year=2022 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197508046.003.0003 |chapter=Gaining Decision Advantage in the Anglo-Spanish War |pages=51–C3.P124 |isbn= 978-0197508077 |quote=Hawkins's motives, like Drake's, went back to that Spanish deceit in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa.}}</ref>

After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing the treasure they had accumulated. Drake denied both accusations, asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=43}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=24}} The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=25}} Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath.<ref name="Sims2022">{{cite book |last1=Sims |first1=Jennifer E. |title=Decision Advantage: Intelligence in International Politics from the Spanish Armada to Cyberwar |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/44620/chapter-abstract/378612109 |year=2022 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197508046.003.0003 |chapter=Gaining Decision Advantage in the Anglo-Spanish War |pages=51–C3.P124 |isbn= 978-0197508077 |quote=Hawkins's motives, like Drake's, went back to that Spanish deceit in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa.}}</ref>

The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving. In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages,<ref name="Morgan2007">{{cite ODNB |last1=Morgan |first1=Basil |title=Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595), merchant and naval commander |date=4 October 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12672 |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-12672}}</ref> and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers).<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023" /> On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that "Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted", but must share some culpability for his participation.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=26}}

The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving. In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages,<ref name="Morgan2007">{{cite ODNB |last1=Morgan |first1=Basil |title=Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595), merchant and naval commander |date=4 October 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12672 |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-12672}}</ref> and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers).<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023"/> On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that "Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted", but must share some culpability for his participation.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=26}}

===Expedition of 1572–1573===

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Drake's first raid was late in July 1572. Drake captured Nombre de Dios, but he was badly wounded when the Spanish arrived from Panama, and his forces had to retreat without the gold, silver, pearls and jewels stored in the royal treasury. Rather than sacking Nombre de Dios again, Drake raided Spanish galleons along the coast<ref name="Lindsay2014">{{cite book |last1=Lindsay |first1=Ivan |title=The History of Loot and Stolen Art: from Antiquity until the Present Day |year=2014 |publisher=Andrews UK Limited |isbn=978-1906509576 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TsG7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17-IA44}}</ref> and with his [[Cimarron people (Panama)|Cimarrón]] (African slaves who had escaped from their Spanish owners)<ref name="Laviña2020">{{cite book |last1=Laviña |first1=Javier |editor1-last=Tomich |editor1-first=Dale W. |title=Atlantic Transformations: Empire, Politics, and Slavery during the Nineteenth Century |date=2020 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1438477862 |pages=183–184 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BO_cDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 |chapter=Atlantization and the First Failed Slavery: Panama from the Sixteenth to the Seventeenth Century}}</ref> allies looted the mule trains that transported gold, silver and trade goods from Panama City.<ref name="Schwaller2021">{{cite book |last1=Schwaller |first1=Robert C. |editor1-last=Schwaller |editor1-first=Robert C. |title=African Maroons in Sixteenth-Century Panama: A History in Documents |year=2021 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0806176765 |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlkmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103}}</ref> One of these men was Diego, who later became a [[Free people of color|free man]] after years of service under Drake.<ref name="Kaufman2017">{{cite book |last1=Kaufmann |first1=Miranda |author-link=Miranda Kaufmann|title=Black Tudors: The Untold Story |year=2017 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1786071859 |pages=74–75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D-9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT74}}</ref>

Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the Spanish ~~silver train~~ at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}} made him rich and famous.<ref name="Rodger2004">{{cite book |last1=Rodger |first1=N. A. M. |title=The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0141912578 |page=lxxxiii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNKKupCv4VwC&pg=PR73}}</ref> Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, [[Guillaume Le Testu]], who was in command of the 80-ton warship ''Havre'', and joined forces with him in a combined fleet. Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid. The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards the trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance. The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}}

Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the [[Spanish Silver Train]] at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}} made him rich and famous.<ref name="Rodger2004">{{cite book |last1=Rodger |first1=N. A. M. |title=The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0141912578 |page=lxxxiii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNKKupCv4VwC&pg=PR73}}</ref> Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, [[Guillaume Le Testu]], who was in command of the 80-ton warship ''Havre'', and joined forces with him in a combined fleet. Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid. The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards the trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance. The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}}

After their attack on the richly laden [[mule]] train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with a fortune in gold.<ref name="Marley2008">{{cite book|first=David |last=Marley|title=Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the Western Hemisphere, 1492 to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkgGVTOr2EsC&pg=PA103|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598841008|pages=103–104}}</ref><ref name="Konstam2011">{{cite book|first=Angus |last=Konstam|title=The Great Expedition: Sir Francis Drake on the Spanish Main 1585–86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKyHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29|date=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1780962337|page=29}}</ref> (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure).<ref name="Little2010">{{cite book |last1=Little |first1=Benerson |title=How History's Greatest Pirates Pillaged, Plundered, and Got Away With It: The Stories, Techniques, and Tactics of the Most Feared Sea Rovers from 1500–1800 |date=2010 |publisher=Quarto Publishing Group USA |isbn=978-1610595001 |pages=59–60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dD-HBxNLkdsC&pg=PA59}}</ref> Badly wounded, Le Testu was captured and beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some {{Convert|18|mi}} of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.<ref name="Best202152">{{cite book |last1=Best |first1=Brian |title=Elizabeth's Sea Dogs and their War Against Spain |year=2021 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1526782885 |page=52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv0hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52}}</ref>

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===Rathlin Island massacre===

Drake was present at the 1575 [[Rathlin Island massacre]] in Ireland. [[John Norris (soldier)|Sir John Norris]] (or ''Norreys'') and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], Robert Devereux, laid siege to [[Rathlin Castle]]. Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all the 200 defenders and several hundred more men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=85}} Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island.{{says who?|date=August 2020}} Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, [[Sorley Boy MacDonnell]], was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following the attack, Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."<ref name="Forde1923">{{cite book |last1=Forde |first1=Hugh |title=Rathlin Island - Sketches of Olden Days in Northern Ireland |url=https://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-url=~~http~~://web.archive.org/web/20080205214159/http://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-date=5 February 2008 |year=1923}}</ref>

Drake was present at the 1575 [[Rathlin Island massacre]] in Ireland. [[John Norris (soldier)|Sir John Norris]] (or ''Norreys'') and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], Robert Devereux, laid siege to [[Rathlin Castle]]. Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all the 200 defenders and several hundred more men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=85}} Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island.{{says who?|date=August 2020}} Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, [[Sorley Boy MacDonnell]], was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following the attack, Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."<ref name="Forde1923">{{cite book |last1=Forde |first1=Hugh |title=Rathlin Island - Sketches of Olden Days in Northern Ireland |url=https://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205214159/http://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-date=5 February 2008 |year=1923 |access-date=13 July 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Circumnavigation (1577–1580)==

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{{blockquote|And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.{{sfnp|Barrow|1843|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zo0xAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA102 102]}}<ref name="Hampden1972">{{cite book |last1=Hampden |first1=John |title=Francis Drake, Privateer: Contemporary Narratives and Documents |year=1972 |publisher=Eyre Methuen Limited |isbn=978-0413284303 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmNnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22holy%20repast%22}}</ref>}}

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, in a sermon ~~suggested~~ that the woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=143}}

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, suggested in a sermon that the woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty. Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=143}}

===Entering the Pacific (1578)===

[[File:Golden Hinde, Londres, Inglaterra, 2014-08-11, DD 107.JPG|thumb|A replica of the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' at [[Bankside]] in London]]

The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later in September 1578 Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, ''Marigold'' (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, ''Elizabeth'', captained by [[John Wynter]], to return to England,<ref name="MontanezUrbina2019">{{cite book |last1=Montanez-Sanabria |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Urbina Carasco |first2=María Ximena |editor1-last=Rojo |editor1-first=Danna A. Levin |editor2-last=Radding |editor2-first=Cynthia |title=The Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0197507704 |page=727 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCy7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA727 |chapter=The Spanish Empire's Southernmost Frontiers: From Arauco to the Strait of Magellan}}</ref> leaving only ''Pelican''. After this passage, ''Pelican'' was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called [[Elizabeth Island (Cape Horn)|Elizabeth Island]]. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in [[Richard Hakluyt]]'s ''The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation'' of 1589) along the Chilean coast.<ref name="Wagner2006">Wagner, Henry R., ''Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements'', Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, {{ISBN|1428622551}}.</ref>

In the Magellan Strait Drake and his men engaged in skirmishes with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia. During their stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of ''[[Drimys winteri]]'' could be used as remedy against [[scurvy]]. Captain Wynter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name.<ref name="Martinic1977">{{cite book |last=Martinic |first=Mateo |author-link=Mateo Martinic |year=1977 |title=Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes |language=es |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html |location=Santiago |publisher=Andrés Bello |pages=67–68 |access-date=28 January 2016 |archive-date=15 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315073421/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

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Near [[Lima]], Drake captured a Spanish ship with 25,000 [[Spanish dollar|pesos]] of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 [[ducat]]s of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, ''[[Nuestra Señora de la Concepción]]'', which was sailing west towards [[Manila]]. It would come to be called ''Cacafuego''. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}

Aboard ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', Drake found {{convert|80|lb|order=flip}} of gold, a golden [[crucifix]], [[gemstone|jewels]], 13 chests of [[Spanish real|silver reals]] and {{convert|26|LT|kg|order=flip}} of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of [[safe conduct]].{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}

Aboard ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', Drake found {{convert|80|lb|abbr=on|order=flip}} of gold, a golden [[crucifix]], [[gemstone|jewels]], 13 chests of [[Spanish real|silver reals]] and {{convert|26|LT|kg|order=flip}} of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of [[safe conduct]].{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}

Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went. His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13 to 16 April, looting provisions and other materials. From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=130}} One possibility was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast. This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the ~~rumored~~ [[Strait of Anián]]; or, sail across the Pacific, making for the [[East Indies]], and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=132}}

Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went. His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13 to 16 April, looting provisions and other materials. From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=130}} One possibility was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast. This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the rumoured [[Strait of Anián]]; or, sail across the Pacific, making for the [[East Indies]], and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=132}}

===Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)===

[[File:Drake CA 1590.jpg|thumb|250px|Drake's landing in California, engraving published 1590 by [[Theodor de Bry]]]]

In May, Drake's two ships passed the [[Baja California peninsula]] and continued north. Prior to Drake's voyage, the western coast of North America had only been partially explored in 1542 by [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]] who sailed for Spain.<ref>{{Citation| last = Davis | first = Loren |display-authors=etal | title = Inventory and Analysis of Coastal and Submerged Archaeological Site Occurrence on the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf | journal = U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management| page = 188|date = November 2013}}</ref> So, intending to avoid further conflict with Spain, Drake navigated north-west of Spanish presence and sought a discreet site at which the crew could prepare for the journey back to England.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=188}}<ref name="Gough1980">{{cite book |last1=Gough |first1=Barry M. |title=Distant Dominion : Britain and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1579–1809 |year=1980 |publisher=Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0774801133 |page=15 |url=https://archive.org/details/distantdominionb0000goug}}</ref> The northernmost extent of this leg of the expedition has been the subject of much scholarly debate,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Keddie |first=Grant |date=20 June 2017 |title=Francis Drake on the Northwest Coast of America. Introductory Notes. Part 1. |url=https://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/2017/06/20/francis-drake-on-the-northwest-coast-of-america-introductory-notes-part-1/ |access-date=27 March 2023 |website=Royal BC Museum |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327172658/https://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/2017/06/20/francis-drake-on-the-northwest-coast-of-america-introductory-notes-part-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sir Francis Drake, 1540?–1596 |url=https://lib-dbserver.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/drake/drake.html |website=Princeton Library |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=20 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220204553/https://lib-dbserver.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/drake/drake.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Kelsey1990">{{cite journal |last1=Kelsey |first1=Harry |title=Did Francis Drake Really Visit California? |journal=The Western Historical Quarterly |date=1990 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=445–462 |doi=10.2307/969250 |jstor=969250 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/969250 |issn=0043-3810|url-access=subscription }}</ref> but most sources agree that Drake reached a latitude of at least 48° north before turning back and heading south.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=133}}{{Sfn|Bawlf|2003|p=270}}

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Drake presented the queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.<ref name="Shields2010"/>

To show her gratitude the queen gave him the [[Drake Jewel]], a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls. It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in a 1591 portrait by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger|Marcus Gheeraerts]]. On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist [[Nicholas Hilliard]], on the other a [[sardonyx]] cameo of double portrait busts~~, a regal woman~~ and ~~an African male~~. The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London.<ref name="Shields2010"/>

To show her gratitude, the queen gave him the [[Drake Jewel]], a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls. It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in a 1591 portrait by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger|Marcus Gheeraerts]]. On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist [[Nicholas Hilliard]], on the other a [[sardonyx]] cameo of double portrait busts of African and European figures standing side by side. The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London.<ref name="Shields2010"/>

===Knighthood and arms===

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[[File:English Ships and the Spanish Armada, August 1588 RMG BHC0262.jpg|thumb|Painting depicting 'English Ships and the Spanish Armada']]

In part to prevent future such attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas, Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.

===Cádiz raid===

[[File:P522 Sir Francis Drake. From the original Portrait.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Drake around 1587, in ''Cassell's illustrated history of England'']]

On 15 March 1587, Drake accepted a new commission with several purposes: to disrupt the shipping routes in order to slow supplies from Italy and [[Andalucia]] to [[Lisbon]], to trouble enemy fleets that were in their home ports, and to capture Spanish ships laden with treasure. Drake was also to confront and attack the [[Spanish Armada]] had it already sailed for England. When arriving at [[Cádiz]] on 19 April, Drake found the harbour packed with ships and supplies as the Armada was readying and waiting for a fair wind to launch the fleet to attack. In the early hours of the next day, Drake pressed his attack into the inner harbour and inflicted heavy damage. Claims of the exact Spanish ship losses vary: Drake claimed he had sunk 39 ships, while the Spanish admitted the loss of only 24.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=205–210}}{{sfn|Whiting|1988|pp=36–38}} The attack became known as the "singeing of the King's beard" and delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.<ref name="Thompson1873">{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Edith|editor1-last=Freeman|editor1-first=Edward Augustus|editor1-link=Edward Augustus Freeman |title=History of England|year=1873|publisher=Henry Holt and Company|place=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01thom/page/136 136]|series=Freeman's Historical Course for Schools|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01thom}}</ref>

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[[File:Valdés surrenders to Francis Drake aboard Revenge.jpg|thumb|Admiral Pedro de Valdés surrendering his sword to Francis Drake aboard ''Revenge'' during the attack of the Spanish Armada, 1588. Oil on canvas by [[John Seymour Lucas]] (1889)]]

The Spanish Armada set sail for England in May 1588, and arrived on the English coast on 29 July, near [[Cornwall]]. An English fleet consisting of 55 ships set out from Plymouth to confront the Armada, under the command of [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]], with Sir Francis Drake serving as vice admiral, commanding from the galleon [[English ship Revenge (1577)|''Revenge'']]. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the disabled Spanish galleon ''[[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora del Rosario (1587)|Nuestra Señora del Rosario]]'', along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and most of his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Armada.<ref name="Kendall2022" /> Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern.<ref name="Hughes-Hallett2010">{{cite book |last1=Hughes-Hallett |first1=Lucy |title=Heroes: A History of Hero Worship |date=2010 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0307485908 |pages=352–353 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qsDm5hjMcBsC&pg=PT352}}</ref> By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the English fleet into disarray overnight.<ref name="Fernández-Armesto1988">{{cite book |last1=Fernández-Armesto |first1=Felipe |title=The Spanish Armada: The Experience of War in 1588 |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198229261 |page=177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWZnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22show%20a%20lantern%22%20%22guide%20the%20rest%22}}</ref>

The [[Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia|Duke of Medina Sidonia]], whom Philip had appointed to command the Armada despite his complete lack of military experience on land or at sea, made his way up the Channel towards the French shore in his flagship ''San Martín'' with the English in pursuit, thinking that if he anchored in the [[roadstead]] of [[Calais]] they would not dare molest the Spanish ships in French waters.<ref name="Callender1912">{{cite book |last1=Callender |first1=Geoffrey |title=Sea Kings of Britain: Hawkins. Drake. Howard. Grenville. Blake |date=1912 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Company |pages=79–81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tigyAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA79}}</ref>

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===English Armada===

{{quote box

| width = 320px

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Drake's will was the focus of an extensive confidence scam which [[Oscar Hartzell]] perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s.<ref name="Rayner2002">Rayner, Richard (22 April 2002). "The Admiral and the Con Man". ''The New Yorker''. p. 150.</ref>

[[Drake's Drum]] has become an icon of [[English folklore]] with its variation of the classic [[king asleep in mountain]] story motif.

[[Drake's Drum]] has become an icon of [[English folklore]] with its variation of the classic [[king asleep in mountain]] story motif. It inspired a [[Henry Newbolt#"Drake's Drum"|poem by Henry Newbolt]].

Drake was a major focus in the video game series ''[[Uncharted]]'', specifically its first and third instalments, ''[[Uncharted: Drake's Fortune]]'' and ''[[Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception]]'', respectively. The series follows [[Nathan Drake]], a self-proclaimed descendant of Drake who retraces his ancestor's voyages.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Husein |first1=Baker |date=20 February 2022 |title=Uncharted: Nate's Francis Drake Link Explained (& How It Sets Up A Sequel) |url=https://screenrant.com/uncharted-nathan-drake-francis-history-sequel-setup/ |website=Screen Rant}}</ref>

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==See also==

* [[Heroologia Anglica]]

* [[Francis William Drake]] – relative of Sir Francis Drake

* [[Drake's Leat]] – a water supply for Plymouth, promoted by Drake

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* {{cite book |first=John |last=Cummins|title=Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAcU-WA0X3QC&pg=PA126|year=1997 |publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0312163655|page=126}}

* {{cite book |first=Richard |last=Hakluyt |author-link=Richard Hakluyt |editor1-first=Edward John |editor1-last=Payne |editor1-link=Edward John Payne |title=Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America. Thirteen original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt |year=1880 |publisher=Thos. de la Rue & Co. |place=London |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofelizabe00haklrich/page/n4|ref=none}}

* {{cite book | title=Sir Francis Drake's Raid on the Treasure Trains, Being the Memorable Relation of His Voyage to the West Indies in 1572 | editor-last1= Hampden |editor-first1= Janet| editor-last2=Hampden |editor-first2=John | year=1954 |publisher=[[Folio Society]] |location= London |ref=none}}

* {{cite book|last=Kelsey|first=Harry|title=Sir Francis Drake: The Queen's Pirate|url=https://archive.org/details/sirfrancisdrakeq0000kels |url-access=registration |year=2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300084634}}

* {{cite book |last1=Kraus |first1=Hans |title=Sir Francis Drake: A Pictorial Biography |year=1970 |publisher=N. Israel, Amsterdam |edition=|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/sir-francis-drake/articles-and-essays/drake-biography/}}

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[[Category:English people of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)]]

[[Category:English privateers]]

[[Category:Explorers of California]]

[[Category:Explorers of North America]]

[[Category:Explorers of ~~Oregon~~]]

[[Category:People from pre-statehood California]]

[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific Northwest]]

[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]

[[Category:16th-century English slave traders]]

[[Category:Mayors of Plymouth]]

[[Category:Members of the Inner Temple]]

[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Bossiney]]

[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for Bossiney]]

[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Camelford]]

[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for Camelford]]

[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Plymouth]]

[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for Plymouth]]

[[Category:Military personnel from Tavistock]]

[[Category:People who died at sea]]

[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

[[Category:English pirates]]

[[Category:Maritime folklore]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|English sailor and privateer (c. 1540 – 1596)}}
-{{About|the Elizabethan naval commander}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
+{{About|the Elizabethan naval commander}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
 {{Use British English|date=March 2020}}
 {{Infobox pirate
-| honorific_prefix = [[Vice Admiral]]
+| honorific_prefix = [[Vice-admiral (Royal Navy)|Vice-Admiral]]
 | name = Sir Francis Drake
 | image = Gheeraerts Francis Drake 1591.jpg
@@ Line 22: / Line 23: @@
 |See list
 |{{tree list}}
-* [[Tudor conquest of Ireland|Anglo-Irish War]]
+* [[Tudor conquest of Ireland]]
 ** [[Rathlin Island massacre]]
 * [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)#Causes|Anglo-Spanish trade war]]
@@ Line 55: / Line 56: @@
 }}
-'''Sir Francis Drake''' ({{c.}} 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English [[Exploration|explorer]] and [[privateer]] best known for making the [[Francis Drake's circumnavigation|second circumnavigation of the world]] in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580 (being the first English expedition to accomplish this). He is also known for participating in the early English slaving voyages of his cousin,  [[John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)|John Hawkins]], and [[John_Lovell_(slave_trader)|John Lovell]]. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the [[Spanish Armada]] as a [[vice admiral]].
+'''Sir Francis Drake''' ({{c.}} 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English [[Exploration|explorer]] and [[privateer]] best known for making the [[Francis Drake's circumnavigation|second circumnavigation of the world]] in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580 (being the first English expedition to accomplish this). He is also known for participating in the early English slaving voyages of his cousin, [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|John Hawkins]], and [[John Lovell (slave trader)|John Lovell]]. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the [[Spanish Armada]] as a [[vice admiral]].
-At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, [[William Hawkins (died c. 1554)|William Hawkins]], a prominent sea captain in [[Plymouth]]. In 1572, he set sail on his [[Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573|first independent mission]], privateering along the [[Spanish Main]]. Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to [[New Albion]], plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. [[Elizabeth I]] awarded Drake a [[Knight Bachelor|knighthood]] in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the ''[[Golden Hind]]''.
+At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, [[William Hawkins (died c. 1554)|William Hawkins]], a prominent sea captain in [[Plymouth]]. In 1572, he set sail on his [[Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573|first independent mission]], privateering along the [[Spanish Main]]. Drake's circumnavigation began on 13 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to [[New Albion]], plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. [[Elizabeth I]] awarded Drake a [[Knight Bachelor|knighthood]] in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the ''[[Golden Hind]]''.
-Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]] began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the [[English Armada]] in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.
+Drake's circumnavigation of the Earth inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]] began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the [[English Armada]] in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.
 Drake was a [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP) for three constituencies: [[Camelford (UK Parliament constituency)|Camelford]] in 1581, [[Bossiney (UK Parliament constituency)|Bossiney]] in 1584, and [[Plymouth (UK Parliament constituency)|Plymouth]] in 1593. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a [[pirate]], known to them as El Draque ("The Dragon" in old Spanish).<ref name="Edmundson2009">{{cite book |last1=Edmundson |first1=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVjCAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |title=A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230101210 |page=9 |quote=The fame of his exploits spread to the extent that by the mid-1570s, Philip began to refer to him as ''Draque'', ''Francisco Draque'', ''El Draque'', and even more intimately as ''El Capitán Francisco''. Educated Spaniards called him ''Francisco Draguez'', and Spanish mothers warned their children that if they did not behave, El Draco would come and take them away – a play on words, since ''el drake'' in old Spanish means "the dragon", derived from the Latin ''Draco''.}}</ref> He died of [[dysentery]] after his [[Drake's Assault on Panama|failed assault on Panama]] in January 1596.
@@ Line 65: / Line 66: @@
 ==Birth and early years==
 [[File:sfdrake42.jpg|thumb|[[Portrait miniature]] by [[Nicholas Hilliard]], 1581, inscribed ''Aetatis suae 42, An(n)o D(omi)ni 1581'' ("42 years of his age, 1581 AD")]]
-[[File:1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake.jpg| thumb | 1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake by Jodocus Hondius I]]
+[[File:1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake.jpg|thumb|1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake by [[Jodocus Hondius|Jodocus Hondius I]]]]
 Francis Drake was born at Crowndale Farm in [[Tavistock, Devon]], England.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=3}} His birth date is not formally recorded – such writers as [[E. F. Benson]] have claimed that he was born while the [[Thirty-nine Articles#Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles of 1539]] were in force,<ref name="Benson1927">{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Edward Frederic |title=Sir Francis Drake |date=1927 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zc4gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6}}</ref> but British naval historian [[Julian Corbett]], writing of [[William Camden]]'s account, on which this information is based, writes that "As a slip of memory, too, we must put down his difficult assertion that Edmund Drake was driven from [[Devonshire]] during a persecution under the [[Statute of the Six Articles|Six Articles Act of 1539]]."{{sfn|Corbett|1898|p=393}} His birth date is estimated from the wording of texts in contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the ''Judith''"<ref name="Campbell1841">{{cite book |title=Lives of the British Admirals and Naval History of Great Britain from the Time of Caesar to the Chinese War of 1841 Chiefly Abridged from the work of Dr. John Campbell |last=Campbell |first=John |author-link=John Campbell (author) |year=1841 |publisher=Richard Griffin & Co |location=Glasgow |isbn=978-0665347566 |oclc=12129656 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SD3M-bWc6a8C&pg=PA104 |access-date=30 August 2012 |archive-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125061454/https://books.google.com/books?id=SD3M-bWc6a8C&pg=PA104 |url-status=live }} Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age."</ref> (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of {{c.}} 1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a [[Portrait miniature|miniature]], painted by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in 1581, when he was allegedly 42, which would place his birth {{circa}} 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 52,<ref name="DNB1921">1921/22 edition of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', which quotes [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]]'s ''Life of Drake'' (1843) p. 5.</ref> would give a birth year of c. 1541.
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 ===Slave trade===
-[[File:Thomas Cavendish (1560-92), Sir Francis Drake (1540?-96) and Sir John Hawkins (1532-95) RMG BHC2603.tiff|thumb|[[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] (left) with Sir Francis Drake (centre) and Sir [[Thomas Cavendish]]]]
+[[File:Thomas Cavendish (1560-92), Sir Francis Drake (1540?-96) and Sir John Hawkins (1532-95) RMG BHC2603.tiff|thumb|[[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] (left) with Sir Francis Drake (centre), and Sir [[Thomas Cavendish]]]]
 In 1562, the West African slave trade was a duopoly dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish. [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] devised a plan to break into that trade, and enlisted the aid of colleagues and family to finance his first slave voyage. Drake was not part of that group of financiers,{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=20}} though his presence as one of hundreds of seamen on Hawkins's first two slaving voyages has been assumed.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=21}} There is some anecdotal evidence to support Drake serving as a common seaman on the first two voyages, and good evidence of his presence for the last two of four slaving voyages made by Hawkins' ships between 1562 and 1569.{{sfn|Loades|2007}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=17}}<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated-->|title=John Hawkins {{!}} Admiral, Privateer, Slave Trader |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/john-hawkins-admiral-privateer-slave-trader |website=www.rmg.co.uk |publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>
@@ Line 90: / Line 92: @@
 Events worsened for the fleet as it faced storms, Spanish hostility, armed conflict, and finally a hurricane that separated one ship from the rest, and it had to find its own way home.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=22}} The remaining ships were forced into the port of [[San Juan de Ulúa]] near [[Veracruz (city)|Vera Cruz]] so they could make repairs. Soon afterward the newly appointed viceroy of New Spain, [[Martín Enríquez de Almanza]], arrived with a fleet of ships. While still negotiating to resupply and repair, Hawkins' ships were attacked by the Spanish ships in what became known as the [[Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568)|Battle of San Juan de Ulúa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strickrodt |first1=Silke |title=The British Transatlantic Slave Trade (4 vols.) |journal=The English Historical Review |date=1 February 2006 |volume=CXXI |issue=490 |pages=226–230 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cej026 }}</ref> The battle ended in an English defeat with all but two of the English ships lost. The Spanish launched a fireship against Hawkins' flagship ''Jesus of Lübeck'', and the crew of ''Minion'' in panic and fear cut the lines securing them to ''Jesus''. Hawkins was among those who jumped from the flagship's bulwarks to ''Minion'''s decks.<ref name="Childs2009">{{cite book |last1=Childs |first1=David |title=Tudor Sea Power: The Foundation of Greatness |year=2009 |publisher=Seaforth Publishing |isbn=978-1848320314 |page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe_RAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83}}</ref> Drake, by this time the captain of ''Judith'', fled leaving Hawkins behind. Hawkins escaped on ''Minion'' and limped back to England with dozens of his men dying along the way,{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=37}} and arriving with a crew of just 15.<ref name="RobertsRobertsBisson2016">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Clayton |last2=Roberts |first2=F. David |last3=Bisson |first3=Douglas |title=A History of England, Volume 1: Prehistory to 1714 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1315510002 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4uTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 |language=en}}</ref> Hundreds of English seamen were abandoned.{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=36}}
-After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing the treasure they had accumulated. Drake denied both accusations asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=43}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=24}} The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=25}} Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath.<ref name="Sims2022">{{cite book |last1=Sims |first1=Jennifer E. |title=Decision Advantage: Intelligence in International Politics from the Spanish Armada to Cyberwar |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/44620/chapter-abstract/378612109 |year=2022 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197508046.003.0003 |chapter=Gaining Decision Advantage in the Anglo-Spanish War |pages=51–C3.P124 |isbn= 978-0197508077 |quote=Hawkins's motives, like Drake's, went back to that Spanish deceit in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa.}}</ref>
+After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing the treasure they had accumulated. Drake denied both accusations, asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=43}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=24}} The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=25}} Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath.<ref name="Sims2022">{{cite book |last1=Sims |first1=Jennifer E. |title=Decision Advantage: Intelligence in International Politics from the Spanish Armada to Cyberwar |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/44620/chapter-abstract/378612109 |year=2022 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197508046.003.0003 |chapter=Gaining Decision Advantage in the Anglo-Spanish War |pages=51–C3.P124 |isbn= 978-0197508077 |quote=Hawkins's motives, like Drake's, went back to that Spanish deceit in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa.}}</ref>
-The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving. In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages,<ref name="Morgan2007">{{cite ODNB |last1=Morgan |first1=Basil |title=Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595), merchant and naval commander |date=4 October 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12672 |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-12672}}</ref> and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers).<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023" /> On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that "Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted", but must share some culpability for his participation.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=26}}
+The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving. In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages,<ref name="Morgan2007">{{cite ODNB |last1=Morgan |first1=Basil |title=Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595), merchant and naval commander |date=4 October 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12672 |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-12672}}</ref> and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers).<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023"/> On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that "Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted", but must share some culpability for his participation.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=26}}
 ===Expedition of 1572–1573===
 {{main article|Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573}}
@@ Line 102: / Line 103: @@
 Drake's first raid was late in July 1572. Drake captured Nombre de Dios, but he was badly wounded when the Spanish arrived from Panama, and his forces had to retreat without the gold, silver, pearls and jewels stored in the royal treasury. Rather than sacking Nombre de Dios again, Drake raided Spanish galleons along the coast<ref name="Lindsay2014">{{cite book |last1=Lindsay |first1=Ivan |title=The History of Loot and Stolen Art: from Antiquity until the Present Day |year=2014 |publisher=Andrews UK Limited |isbn=978-1906509576 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TsG7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17-IA44}}</ref> and with his [[Cimarron people (Panama)|Cimarrón]] (African slaves who had escaped from their Spanish owners)<ref name="Laviña2020">{{cite book |last1=Laviña |first1=Javier |editor1-last=Tomich |editor1-first=Dale W. |title=Atlantic Transformations: Empire, Politics, and Slavery during the Nineteenth Century |date=2020 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1438477862 |pages=183–184 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BO_cDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 |chapter=Atlantization and the First Failed Slavery: Panama from the Sixteenth to the Seventeenth Century}}</ref> allies looted the mule trains that transported gold, silver and trade goods from Panama City.<ref name="Schwaller2021">{{cite book |last1=Schwaller |first1=Robert C. |editor1-last=Schwaller |editor1-first=Robert C. |title=African Maroons in Sixteenth-Century Panama: A History in Documents |year=2021 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0806176765 |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlkmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103}}</ref> One of these men was Diego, who later became a [[Free people of color|free man]] after years of service under Drake.<ref name="Kaufman2017">{{cite book |last1=Kaufmann |first1=Miranda |author-link=Miranda Kaufmann|title=Black Tudors: The Untold Story |year=2017 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1786071859 |pages=74–75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D-9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT74}}</ref>
-Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the Spanish silver train at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}} made him rich and famous.<ref name="Rodger2004">{{cite book |last1=Rodger |first1=N. A. M. |title=The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0141912578 |page=lxxxiii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNKKupCv4VwC&pg=PR73}}</ref> Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, [[Guillaume Le Testu]], who was in command of the 80-ton warship ''Havre'', and joined forces with him in a combined fleet. Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid. The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards the trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance. The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}}
+Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the [[Spanish Silver Train]] at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}} made him rich and famous.<ref name="Rodger2004">{{cite book |last1=Rodger |first1=N. A. M. |title=The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0141912578 |page=lxxxiii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNKKupCv4VwC&pg=PR73}}</ref> Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, [[Guillaume Le Testu]], who was in command of the 80-ton warship ''Havre'', and joined forces with him in a combined fleet. Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid. The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards the trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance. The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}}
 After their attack on the richly laden [[mule]] train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with a fortune in gold.<ref name="Marley2008">{{cite book|first=David |last=Marley|title=Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the Western Hemisphere, 1492 to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkgGVTOr2EsC&pg=PA103|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598841008|pages=103–104}}</ref><ref name="Konstam2011">{{cite book|first=Angus |last=Konstam|title=The Great Expedition: Sir Francis Drake on the Spanish Main 1585–86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKyHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29|date=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1780962337|page=29}}</ref> (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure).<ref name="Little2010">{{cite book |last1=Little |first1=Benerson |title=How History's Greatest Pirates Pillaged, Plundered, and Got Away With It: The Stories, Techniques, and Tactics of the Most Feared Sea Rovers from 1500–1800 |date=2010 |publisher=Quarto Publishing Group USA |isbn=978-1610595001 |pages=59–60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dD-HBxNLkdsC&pg=PA59}}</ref> Badly wounded, Le Testu was captured and beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some {{Convert|18|mi}} of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.<ref name="Best202152">{{cite book |last1=Best |first1=Brian |title=Elizabeth's Sea Dogs and their War Against Spain |year=2021 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1526782885 |page=52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv0hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52}}</ref>
@@ Line 113: / Line 114: @@
 ===Rathlin Island massacre===
-Drake was present at the 1575 [[Rathlin Island massacre]] in Ireland. [[John Norris (soldier)|Sir John Norris]] (or ''Norreys'') and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], Robert Devereux, laid siege to [[Rathlin Castle]]. Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all the 200 defenders and several hundred more men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=85}} Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island.{{says who?|date=August 2020}} Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, [[Sorley Boy MacDonnell]], was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following the attack, Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."<ref name="Forde1923">{{cite book |last1=Forde |first1=Hugh |title=Rathlin Island - Sketches of Olden Days in Northern Ireland |url=https://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080205214159/http://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-date=5 February 2008 |year=1923}}</ref>
+Drake was present at the 1575 [[Rathlin Island massacre]] in Ireland. [[John Norris (soldier)|Sir John Norris]] (or ''Norreys'') and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], Robert Devereux, laid siege to [[Rathlin Castle]]. Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all the 200 defenders and several hundred more men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=85}} Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island.{{says who?|date=August 2020}} Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, [[Sorley Boy MacDonnell]], was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following the attack, Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."<ref name="Forde1923">{{cite book |last1=Forde |first1=Hugh |title=Rathlin Island - Sketches of Olden Days in Northern Ireland |url=https://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205214159/http://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/rathlin.php |archive-date=5 February 2008 |year=1923 |access-date=13 July 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 ==Circumnavigation (1577–1580)==
@@ Line 131: / Line 132: @@
 {{blockquote|And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.{{sfnp|Barrow|1843|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zo0xAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA102 102]}}<ref name="Hampden1972">{{cite book |last1=Hampden |first1=John |title=Francis Drake, Privateer: Contemporary Narratives and Documents |year=1972 |publisher=Eyre Methuen Limited |isbn=978-0413284303 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmNnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22holy%20repast%22}}</ref>}}
-Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=143}}
+Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, suggested in a sermon that the woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty. Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=143}}
 ===Entering the Pacific (1578)===
 [[File:Golden Hinde, Londres, Inglaterra, 2014-08-11, DD 107.JPG|thumb|A replica of the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' at [[Bankside]] in London]]
 The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later in September 1578 Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, ''Marigold'' (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, ''Elizabeth'', captained by [[John Wynter]], to return to England,<ref name="MontanezUrbina2019">{{cite book |last1=Montanez-Sanabria |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Urbina Carasco |first2=María Ximena |editor1-last=Rojo |editor1-first=Danna A. Levin |editor2-last=Radding |editor2-first=Cynthia |title=The Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0197507704 |page=727 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCy7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA727 |chapter=The Spanish Empire's Southernmost Frontiers: From Arauco to the Strait of Magellan}}</ref> leaving only ''Pelican''. After this passage, ''Pelican'' was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called [[Elizabeth Island (Cape Horn)|Elizabeth Island]]. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in [[Richard Hakluyt]]'s ''The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation'' of 1589) along the Chilean coast.<ref name="Wagner2006">Wagner, Henry R., ''Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements'', Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, {{ISBN|1428622551}}.</ref>
 In the Magellan Strait Drake and his men engaged in skirmishes with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia. During their stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of ''[[Drimys winteri]]'' could be used as remedy against [[scurvy]]. Captain Wynter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name.<ref name="Martinic1977">{{cite book |last=Martinic |first=Mateo |author-link=Mateo Martinic |year=1977 |title=Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes |language=es |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html |location=Santiago |publisher=Andrés Bello |pages=67–68 |access-date=28 January 2016 |archive-date=15 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315073421/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
@@ Line 146: / Line 147: @@
 Near [[Lima]], Drake captured a Spanish ship with 25,000&nbsp;[[Spanish dollar|pesos]] of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000&nbsp;[[ducat]]s of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, ''[[Nuestra Señora de la Concepción]]'', which was sailing west towards [[Manila]]. It would come to be called ''Cacafuego''. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}
-Aboard ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', Drake found {{convert|80|lb|order=flip}} of gold, a golden [[crucifix]], [[gemstone|jewels]], 13&nbsp;chests of [[Spanish real|silver reals]] and {{convert|26|LT|kg|order=flip}} of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of [[safe conduct]].{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}
+Aboard ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', Drake found {{convert|80|lb|abbr=on|order=flip}} of gold, a golden [[crucifix]], [[gemstone|jewels]], 13&nbsp;chests of [[Spanish real|silver reals]] and {{convert|26|LT|kg|order=flip}} of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of [[safe conduct]].{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}
-Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went. His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13 to 16 April, looting provisions and other materials. From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=130}} One possibility was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast. This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the rumored [[Strait of Anián]]; or, sail across the Pacific, making for the [[East Indies]], and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=132}}
+Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went. His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13 to 16 April, looting provisions and other materials. From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=130}} One possibility was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast. This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the rumoured [[Strait of Anián]]; or, sail across the Pacific, making for the [[East Indies]], and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=132}}
 ===Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)===
 {{Main|New Albion|Drake in California}}
 [[File:Drake CA 1590.jpg|thumb|250px|Drake's landing in California, engraving published 1590 by [[Theodor de Bry]]]]
 In May, Drake's two ships passed the [[Baja California peninsula]] and continued north. Prior to Drake's voyage, the western coast of North America had only been partially explored in 1542 by [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]] who sailed for Spain.<ref>{{Citation| last = Davis | first = Loren |display-authors=etal | title = Inventory and Analysis of Coastal and Submerged Archaeological Site Occurrence on the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf | journal = U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management| page = 188|date = November 2013}}</ref> So, intending to avoid further conflict with Spain, Drake navigated north-west of Spanish presence and sought a discreet site at which the crew could prepare for the journey back to England.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=188}}<ref name="Gough1980">{{cite book |last1=Gough |first1=Barry M. |title=Distant Dominion : Britain and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1579–1809 |year=1980 |publisher=Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0774801133 |page=15 |url=https://archive.org/details/distantdominionb0000goug}}</ref> The northernmost extent of this leg of the expedition has been the subject of much scholarly debate,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Keddie |first=Grant |date=20 June 2017 |title=Francis Drake on the Northwest Coast of America. Introductory Notes. Part 1. |url=https://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/2017/06/20/francis-drake-on-the-northwest-coast-of-america-introductory-notes-part-1/ |access-date=27 March 2023 |website=Royal BC Museum |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327172658/https://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/2017/06/20/francis-drake-on-the-northwest-coast-of-america-introductory-notes-part-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sir Francis Drake, 1540?–1596 |url=https://lib-dbserver.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/drake/drake.html |website=Princeton Library |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=20 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220204553/https://lib-dbserver.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/drake/drake.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Kelsey1990">{{cite journal |last1=Kelsey |first1=Harry |title=Did Francis Drake Really Visit California? |journal=The Western Historical Quarterly |date=1990 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=445–462 |doi=10.2307/969250 |jstor=969250 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/969250 |issn=0043-3810|url-access=subscription }}</ref> but most sources agree that Drake reached a latitude of at least 48° north before turning back and heading south.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=133}}{{Sfn|Bawlf|2003|p=270}}
@@ Line 169: / Line 171: @@
 Drake presented the queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.<ref name="Shields2010"/>
-To show her gratitude the queen gave him the [[Drake Jewel]], a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls. It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in a 1591 portrait by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger|Marcus Gheeraerts]]. On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist [[Nicholas Hilliard]], on the other a [[sardonyx]] cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London.<ref name="Shields2010"/>
+To show her gratitude, the queen gave him the [[Drake Jewel]], a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls. It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in a 1591 portrait by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger|Marcus Gheeraerts]]. On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist [[Nicholas Hilliard]], on the other a [[sardonyx]] cameo of double portrait busts of African and European figures standing side by side. The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London.<ref name="Shields2010"/>
 ===Knighthood and arms===
@@ Line 196: / Line 198: @@
 [[File:English Ships and the Spanish Armada, August 1588 RMG BHC0262.jpg|thumb|Painting depicting 'English Ships and the Spanish Armada']]
 {{main|Spanish Armada}}
 In part to prevent future such attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas, Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.
 ===Cádiz raid===
 {{Main|Singeing the King of Spain's Beard}}
 [[File:P522 Sir Francis Drake. From the original Portrait.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Drake around 1587, in ''Cassell's illustrated history of England'']]
 On 15 March 1587, Drake accepted a new commission with several purposes: to disrupt the shipping routes in order to slow supplies from Italy and [[Andalucia]] to [[Lisbon]], to trouble enemy fleets that were in their home ports, and to capture Spanish ships laden with treasure. Drake was also to confront and attack the [[Spanish Armada]] had it already sailed for England. When arriving at [[Cádiz]] on 19 April, Drake found the harbour packed with ships and supplies as the Armada was readying and waiting for a fair wind to launch the fleet to attack. In the early hours of the next day, Drake pressed his attack into the inner harbour and inflicted heavy damage. Claims of the exact Spanish ship losses vary: Drake claimed he had sunk 39 ships, while the Spanish admitted the loss of only 24.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=205–210}}{{sfn|Whiting|1988|pp=36–38}} The attack became known as the "singeing of the King's beard" and delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.<ref name="Thompson1873">{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Edith|editor1-last=Freeman|editor1-first=Edward Augustus|editor1-link=Edward Augustus Freeman |title=History of England|year=1873|publisher=Henry Holt and Company|place=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01thom/page/136 136]|series=Freeman's Historical Course for Schools|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01thom}}</ref>
@@ Line 212: / Line 216: @@
 [[File:Valdés surrenders to Francis Drake aboard Revenge.jpg|thumb|Admiral Pedro de Valdés surrendering his sword to Francis Drake aboard ''Revenge'' during the attack of the Spanish Armada, 1588. Oil on canvas by [[John Seymour Lucas]] (1889)]]
 The Spanish Armada set sail for England in May 1588, and arrived on the English coast on 29 July, near [[Cornwall]]. An English fleet consisting of 55 ships set out from Plymouth to confront the Armada, under the command of [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]], with Sir Francis Drake serving as vice admiral, commanding from the galleon [[English ship Revenge (1577)|''Revenge'']]. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the disabled Spanish galleon ''[[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora del Rosario (1587)|Nuestra Señora del Rosario]]'', along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and most of his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Armada.<ref name="Kendall2022" /> Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern.<ref name="Hughes-Hallett2010">{{cite book |last1=Hughes-Hallett |first1=Lucy |title=Heroes: A History of Hero Worship |date=2010 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0307485908 |pages=352–353 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qsDm5hjMcBsC&pg=PT352}}</ref> By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the English fleet into disarray overnight.<ref name="Fernández-Armesto1988">{{cite book |last1=Fernández-Armesto |first1=Felipe |title=The Spanish Armada: The Experience of War in 1588 |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198229261 |page=177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWZnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22show%20a%20lantern%22%20%22guide%20the%20rest%22}}</ref>
 The [[Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia|Duke of Medina Sidonia]], whom Philip had appointed to command the Armada despite his complete lack of military experience on land or at sea, made his way up the Channel towards the French shore in his flagship ''San Martín'' with the English in pursuit, thinking that if he anchored in the [[roadstead]] of [[Calais]] they would not dare molest the Spanish ships in French waters.<ref name="Callender1912">{{cite book |last1=Callender |first1=Geoffrey |title=Sea Kings of Britain: Hawkins. Drake. Howard. Grenville. Blake |date=1912 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Company |pages=79–81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tigyAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA79}}</ref>
@@ Line 228: / Line 232: @@
 ===English Armada===
 {{Main|English Armada}}
 {{quote box
 | width = 320px
@@ Line 273: / Line 278: @@
 Drake's will was the focus of an extensive confidence scam which [[Oscar Hartzell]] perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s.<ref name="Rayner2002">Rayner, Richard (22 April 2002). "The Admiral and the Con Man". ''The New Yorker''. p. 150.</ref>
-[[Drake's Drum]] has become an icon of [[English folklore]] with its variation of the classic [[king asleep in mountain]] story motif.
+[[Drake's Drum]] has become an icon of [[English folklore]] with its variation of the classic [[king asleep in mountain]] story motif. It inspired a [[Henry Newbolt#"Drake's Drum"|poem by Henry Newbolt]].
 Drake was a major focus in the video game series ''[[Uncharted]]'', specifically its first and third instalments, ''[[Uncharted: Drake's Fortune]]'' and ''[[Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception]]'', respectively. The series follows [[Nathan Drake]], a self-proclaimed descendant of Drake who retraces his ancestor's voyages.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Husein |first1=Baker |date=20 February 2022 |title=Uncharted: Nate's Francis Drake Link Explained (& How It Sets Up A Sequel) |url=https://screenrant.com/uncharted-nathan-drake-francis-history-sequel-setup/ |website=Screen Rant}}</ref>
@@ Line 296: / Line 301: @@
 ==See also==
+* [[Heroologia Anglica]]
 * [[Francis William Drake]] – relative of Sir Francis Drake
 * [[Drake's Leat]] – a water supply for Plymouth, promoted by Drake
@@ Line 311: / Line 317: @@
 * {{cite book |first=John |last=Cummins|title=Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAcU-WA0X3QC&pg=PA126|year=1997 |publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0312163655|page=126}}
 * {{cite book |first=Richard |last=Hakluyt |author-link=Richard Hakluyt |editor1-first=Edward John |editor1-last=Payne |editor1-link=Edward John Payne |title=Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America. Thirteen original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt |year=1880 |publisher=Thos. de la Rue & Co. |place=London |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofelizabe00haklrich/page/n4|ref=none}}
+* {{cite book | title=Sir Francis Drake's Raid on the Treasure Trains, Being the Memorable Relation of His Voyage to the West Indies in 1572 | editor-last1= Hampden |editor-first1= Janet| editor-last2=Hampden |editor-first2=John | year=1954 |publisher=[[Folio Society]] |location= London |ref=none}}
 * {{cite book|last=Kelsey|first=Harry|title=Sir Francis Drake: The Queen's Pirate|url=https://archive.org/details/sirfrancisdrakeq0000kels |url-access=registration |year=2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300084634}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Kraus |first1=Hans |title=Sir Francis Drake: A Pictorial Biography |year=1970 |publisher=N. Israel, Amsterdam |edition=|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/sir-francis-drake/articles-and-essays/drake-biography/}}
@@ Line 354: / Line 361: @@
 [[Category:English people of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)]]
 [[Category:English privateers]]
-[[Category:Explorers of California]]
+[[Category:Explorers of North America]]
-[[Category:Explorers of Oregon]]
+[[Category:People from pre-statehood California]]
+[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific Northwest]]
 [[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
 [[Category:16th-century English slave traders]]
 [[Category:Mayors of Plymouth]]
 [[Category:Members of the Inner Temple]]
-[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Bossiney]]
+[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for Bossiney]]
-[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Camelford]]
+[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for Camelford]]
-[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Plymouth]]
+[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for Plymouth]]
 [[Category:Military personnel from Tavistock]]
 [[Category:People who died at sea]]
 [[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
 [[Category:English pirates]]
+[[Category:Maritime folklore]]

Francis Drake: Difference between revisions

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