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| image = Galenus.jpg | | image = Galenus.jpg | ||
| caption = A 17th-century engraving by Georg P. Busch<ref name="portraits">Since no contemporary depictions or descriptions of Galen are known to have existed, later artists' impressions are unlikely to have reproduced his appearance accurately.</ref> | | caption = A 17th-century engraving by Georg P. Busch<ref name="portraits">Since no contemporary depictions or descriptions of Galen are known to have existed, later artists' impressions are unlikely to have reproduced his appearance accurately.</ref> | ||
| birth_date = 129 | | birth_date = 129 CE | ||
| birth_place = [[Pergamon]], [[Asia | | birth_place = [[Pergamon]], [[Roman Asia]] | ||
| death_date = {{Circa|216}} | | death_date = {{Circa|216}} CE (aged {{Circa| 87|lk=no}}) | ||
| death_place = | | death_place = | ||
| fields = [[Anatomy]]<br>[[Medicine]]<br>[[Philosophy]] | | fields = [[Anatomy]]<br>[[Medicine]]<br>[[Philosophy]] | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''Aelius Galenus''' or '''Claudius Galenus'''<ref name="alexandru21">{{cite journal|author =S. Alexandru|year = 2021|title = Critical Remarks on Codices in which Galen Appears as a Member of the ''gens Claudia''|journal = Mnemosyne|volume = 74|issue = 4|pages = 553–597|doi = 10.1163/1568525x-12342720|s2cid = 225298224}}</ref> ({{langx|el|Κλαύδιος Γαληνός}}; September 129 – {{circa|216|lk=no}} | '''Aelius Galenus''' or '''Claudius Galenus'''<ref name="alexandru21">{{cite journal|author =S. Alexandru|year = 2021|title = Critical Remarks on Codices in which Galen Appears as a Member of the ''gens Claudia''|journal = Mnemosyne|volume = 74|issue = 4|pages = 553–597|doi = 10.1163/1568525x-12342720|s2cid = 225298224}}</ref> ({{langx|el|Κλαύδιος Γαληνός}}; September 129 – {{circa|216|lk=no}} CE), often [[Anglicization|anglicized]] as '''Galen''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|g|eɪ|l|ən}}) or '''Galen of Pergamon''',<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/galen "Galen"] entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> was a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Greeks|Greek]] [[physician]], [[surgeon]], and [[Philosophy|philosopher]].<ref>''Life, death, and entertainment in the Roman Empire''. David Stone Potter, D. J. Mattingly (1999). [[University of Michigan Press]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HPjqJWakX7IC&pg=PA63 p. 63]. {{ISBN|0-472-08568-9}}</ref><ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DQY9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1 Galen on bloodletting: a study of the origins, development, and validity of his opinions, with a translation of the three works]''". Peter Brain, Galen (1986). [[Cambridge University Press]]. p. 1. {{ISBN|0-521-32085-2}}</ref><ref name="nutton73">{{cite journal|author = Nutton Vivian|year = 1973|title = The Chronology of Galen's Early Career|journal = Classical Quarterly|volume = 23|issue = 1|pages = 158–171|doi = 10.1017/S0009838800036600|pmid = 11624046|s2cid = 35645790}}</ref> Considered to be one of the most accomplished of all [[medical research]]ers of [[Ancient history|antiquity]], Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including [[anatomy]],<ref>{{cite journal|pmc = 1081972|page=212|volume=21|issue=2|journal=Med Hist|title=Galen on the affected parts. Translation from the Greek text with explanatory notes|doi=10.1017/s0025727300037935|year=1977}}</ref> [[physiology]], [[pathology]],<ref name="brock"/> [[pharmacology]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=al9FH5tynlAC&q=galen+on+pharmacology|title=Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium, Lille, 16–18 March 1995|first=Armelle|last=Debru|date=1997|publisher=Brill|via=Google Books|isbn=978-9004104037}}</ref> and [[neurology]], as well as philosophy<ref name="Galen on the brain">{{cite journal|last1=Rocca|first1=Julius|year=2003|title=Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century AD|journal=Studies in Ancient Medicine|publisher=Brill|volume=26|pages=1–313|doi=10.1163/9789047401438|pmid=12848196|isbn=978-90-47-40143-8}}</ref> and [[logic]]. | ||
The son of [[Aelius Nicon]], a wealthy Greek architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in the ancient city of [[Pergamon]] (present-day [[Bergama]], Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several [[Roman emperor|emperors]]. | The son of [[Aelius Nicon]], a wealthy Greek architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in the ancient city of [[Pergamon]] (present-day [[Bergama]], Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several [[Roman emperor|emperors]]. | ||
Galen's understanding of anatomy and [[medicine]] was principally influenced by the | Galen's understanding of anatomy and [[medicine]] was principally influenced by the contemporary theory of the [[Humorism|four humors]]: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm, as first advanced by the author of ''On the Nature of Man'' in the [[Hippocratic Corpus|Hippocratic corpus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nutton|first=V.|date=2005|title=The Fatal Embrace: Galen and the History of Ancient Medicine|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/science-in-context/article/abs/fatal-embrace-galen-and-the-history-of-ancient-medicine/B593B7BD348DB7E16303AA46FD2E42E6|journal=Science in Context|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=111–121|doi=10.1017/S0269889705000384|pmid=16075496|s2cid=10878807|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Galen's views dominated and influenced [[Western medicine|Western medical science]] for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports were based mainly on the [[dissection]] of [[Barbary macaque|Barbary apes]].<ref name=":0"/> However, while dissections and [[vivisection]]s on humans were practiced in [[Alexandria]] by [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]] in the 3rd century BCE under Ptolemaic permission, by Galen's time these procedures were strictly forbidden in the Roman Empire. As Galen discovered that the facial expressions of the Barbary apes were particularly vivid, Galen switched to [[pig|pigs]] for his research to avoid prosecution. [[Aristotle]] had used pigs centuries earlier for his study of anatomy and physiology. Galen, like others, reasoned that animal anatomy had a strong consilience with that of humans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dean-Jones |first=Lesley |title=At the Crossroads of Greco-Roman History, Culture, and Religion: Papers in Memory of Carin M. C. Green |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-78969-014-9 |editor-last=Bell |editor-first=Sinclair |pages=229–248 |chapter=Galen and the Culture of Dissection}}</ref> Galen would encourage his students to go look at dead gladiators or bodies that washed up in order to get better acquainted with the human body. | ||
Galen's theory of the physiology of the [[circulatory system]] remained unchallenged until {{Circa|1242|lk=no}}, when [[Ibn al-Nafis]] published his book ''Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina'' (''[[Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon]]''), in which he reported his discovery of [[pulmonary circulation]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=John|title=Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age|journal=Journal of Applied Physiology|date=1985|volume=105|issue=6|pages=1877–1880|pmc=2612469|pmid=18845773|doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008}}</ref> His anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' by [[Andreas Vesalius]],<ref name="Vesalius1543">{{cite book | Galen's theory of the physiology of the [[circulatory system]] remained unchallenged until {{Circa|1242|lk=no}}, when [[Ibn al-Nafis]] published his book ''Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina'' (''[[Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon]]''), in which he reported his discovery of [[pulmonary circulation]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=John|title=Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age|journal=Journal of Applied Physiology|date=1985|volume=105|issue=6|pages=1877–1880|pmc=2612469|pmid=18845773|doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008}}</ref> His anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' by [[Andreas Vesalius]],<ref name="Vesalius1543">{{cite book | ||
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==Biography== | ==Biography== | ||
Galen's Greek name {{lang|grc|Γαληνός}} ( | Galen's Greek name {{lang|grc|Γαληνός}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|Galēnós}}) comes from the adjective {{lang|grc|γαληνός}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|galēnós}}) 'calm'.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dgalhno%2Fs γαληνός], | ||
Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> Galen's Latin name (Aelius or Claudius) implies he had [[Roman citizenship]].<ref>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/abs/galen-and-roman-medicine-or-can-a-greek-become-a-latin/7257B40ABA94E375F6253389004D8DE4 Galen and roman medicine]</ref> | Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> Galen's Latin name (Aelius or Claudius) implies he had [[Roman citizenship]].<ref>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/abs/galen-and-roman-medicine-or-can-a-greek-become-a-latin/7257B40ABA94E375F6253389004D8DE4 Galen and roman medicine]</ref> | ||
Galen describes his early life in ''On the affections of the mind''. He was born in September 129 | Galen describes his early life in ''On the affections of the mind''. He was born in September 129 CE.<ref name="nutton73"/> His father, [[Aelius Nicon]], was a wealthy [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]], an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature. Galen describes his father as a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At that time [[Pergamon]] (modern-day [[Bergama]], Turkey) was a major cultural and intellectual centre, noted for its [[Library of Pergamum|library]], second only to that in Alexandria,<ref name="brock"/><ref name="metzger">[https://books.google.com/books?id=NrEeAAAAIAAJ Metzger BM. New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic. Brill 1980], {{ISBN|978-90-04-06163-7}}</ref> as well as being the site of a [[Asclepeion|large temple]] to the healing god [[Asclepius]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Galen {{!}} Biography, Achievements, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galen|access-date=18 December 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> The city attracted both [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Platonism|Platonic]] philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at the age of 14. His studies also took in each of the principal philosophical systems of the time, including [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] and [[Epicurean]]. His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary and philosophical influences. However, Galen states that in around 145 his father had a dream in which the god [[Asclepius]] appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine.<ref name="nutton73"/><ref name=":0"/> | ||
===Medical education=== | ===Medical education=== | ||
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[[File:Galen's "Physiological system" Wellcome M0000376.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|An interpretation of Galen's human "physiological system"]] | [[File:Galen's "Physiological system" Wellcome M0000376.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|An interpretation of Galen's human "physiological system"]] | ||
Galen's interest in human anatomy ran afoul of Roman law that prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since roughly 150 BC.<ref>'Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived', Arthur Aufderheide, 'The Scientific Study of Mummies' (2003), p. 5</ref> Because of this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living ([[vivisection]]) and dead animals, mostly focusing on [[primate]]s.<ref name="brock"/> Galen believed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of humans. Galen clarified the anatomy of the [[trachea]] and was the first to demonstrate that the [[larynx]] generates the voice.<ref>{{cite book|author=Claudii Galeni Pergameni|title=Galen on anatomical procedures: De anatomicis administrationibus|editor=translated by [[Charles Singer|Charles Joseph Singer]]|publisher=Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press/Wellcome Historical Medical Museum|location=London|year=1956|pages=195–207}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Claudii Galeni Pergameni|title=Galen on Anatomical Procedures|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=49|issue=10|pages=833|date=October 1956|doi=10.1177/003591575604901017|pmc=1889206}}</ref> In one experiment, Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Claudii Galeni Pergameni | Galen's interest in human anatomy ran afoul of Roman law that prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since roughly 150 BC.<ref>'Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived', Arthur Aufderheide, 'The Scientific Study of Mummies' (2003), p. 5</ref> Because of this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living ([[vivisection]]) and dead animals, mostly focusing on [[primate]]s.<ref name="brock"/> Galen believed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of humans. Galen clarified the anatomy of the [[trachea]] and was the first to demonstrate that the [[larynx]] generates the voice.<ref>{{cite book|author=Claudii Galeni Pergameni|title=Galen on anatomical procedures: De anatomicis administrationibus|editor=translated by [[Charles Singer|Charles Joseph Singer]]|publisher=Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press/Wellcome Historical Medical Museum|location=London|year=1956|pages=195–207}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Claudii Galeni Pergameni|title=Galen on Anatomical Procedures|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=49|issue=10|pages=833|date=October 1956|doi=10.1177/003591575604901017|pmc=1889206}}</ref> In one experiment, Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Claudii Galeni Pergameni | ||
|title=De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII|editor=Nicolao Regio Calabro (Nicolaus Rheginus)|chapter=De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII, cap. IV|publisher=ex officina Simonis Colinaei|location=Paris|language=la|year=1528|pages=339 | |title=De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII|editor=Nicolao Regio Calabro (Nicolaus Rheginus)|chapter=De usu partium corporis humani, libri VII, cap. IV|publisher=ex officina Simonis Colinaei|location=Paris|language=la|year=1528|pages=339 | ||
|chapter-url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k542146.image.f8|access-date=7 August 2010}}</ref><ref name=Baker1971>{{cite journal | |chapter-url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k542146.image.f8|access-date=7 August 2010}}</ref><ref name=Baker1971>{{cite journal | ||
|author=A. Barrington Baker|title=Artificial respiration, the history of an idea|journal=Medical History|volume=15|issue=4 | |author=A. Barrington Baker|title=Artificial respiration, the history of an idea|journal=Medical History|volume=15|issue=4 | ||
|pages=336–351|date=October 1971|pmid=4944603|pmc=1034194|doi=10.1017/s0025727300016896}}</ref> Galen's research on [[physiology]] was largely influenced by previous works of philosophers Plato and Aristotle, as well as from the physician Hippocrates. He was one of the first people to use experiments as a method of research for his medical findings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC – History – Historic Figures: Galen (c. 130 – c. 210)|url= | |pages=336–351|date=October 1971|pmid=4944603|pmc=1034194|doi=10.1017/s0025727300016896}}</ref> Galen's research on [[physiology]] was largely influenced by previous works of philosophers Plato and Aristotle, as well as from the physician Hippocrates. He was one of the first people to use experiments as a method of research for his medical findings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC – History – Historic Figures: Galen (c. 130 – c. 210)|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/galen.shtml|access-date=18 December 2020|website=www.bbc.co.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref> Doing so allowed him to explore various parts of the body and its functions. | ||
Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the [[circulatory system]]. He was the first to recognize that there are distinct differences between [[venous blood|venous]] (dark) and [[arterial blood|arterial]] (bright) blood. In addition to these discoveries, Galen postulated much more about the nature of the [[circulatory system]]. He believed that blood originated in the liver, which follows the teachings of Hippocrates. The liver converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to be used in the circulatory system.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Aird|first=W. C.|date=July 2011|title=Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey: Discovery of the cardiovascular system|journal=Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis|language=en|volume=9|pages=118–129|doi=10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x|pmid=21781247|s2cid=12092592|doi-access=free}}</ref> The blood created in the liver would eventually flow unidirectionally into the right ventricle of the heart via the great vein.<ref name=":1"/> Galen also proposed a theory on how blood receives air from the lungs to be distributed throughout the body. He declared that the venous artery carried air from the lungs into the left ventricle of the heart to mix with created blood from the liver.<ref name=":1"/> This same venous artery allowed for an exchange of waste products from the blood back into the lungs to be exhaled.<ref name=":1"/> In order to receive air from the lungs in the left ventricle, the new blood needed to get there from the right ventricle. Thus, Galen asserted that there are small holes in the septum dividing the left and right sides of the heart; these holes allowed the blood to pass through easily to receive air and exchange the aforementioned waste products.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuusela|first=P. J.|date=2014|title=The heart exhibits right to left communication between the fibres of the muscular part of the interventricular septum|url=https://journals.viamedica.pl/folia_morphologica/article/view/FM.2014.0006|journal=Folia Morphologica|language=en|volume=73|issue=1|pages=42–50|doi=10.5603/FM.2014.0006|pmid=24590522|issn=1644-3284|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, [[nervous system]], [[respiratory system]], and other structures, his work contained scientific errors.<ref name="Galen on the brain"/> Galen believed the circulatory system to consist of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than a single unified system of circulation. He believed venous blood to be generated in the liver, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated in the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver or the heart, completing the cycle. Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called the [[rete mirabile]] in the carotid sinus.<ref name="MarkGrant"/> Both of these theories of the circulation of blood were later (beginning with works of [[Ibn al-Nafis]] published {{Circa|1242|lk=no}}) shown to be incorrect.<ref name="Furley1984">Furley, D, and J. Wilkie, 1984, ''Galen On Respiration and the Arteries'', Princeton University Press, and Bylebyl, J (ed), 1979, ''William Harvey and His Age'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press</ref> | Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the [[circulatory system]]. He was the first to recognize that there are distinct differences between [[venous blood|venous]] (dark) and [[arterial blood|arterial]] (bright) blood. In addition to these discoveries, Galen postulated much more about the nature of the [[circulatory system]]. He believed that blood originated in the liver, which follows the teachings of Hippocrates. The liver converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to be used in the circulatory system.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Aird|first=W. C.|date=July 2011|title=Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey: Discovery of the cardiovascular system|journal=Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis|language=en|volume=9|pages=118–129|doi=10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x|pmid=21781247|s2cid=12092592|doi-access=free}}</ref> The blood created in the liver would eventually flow unidirectionally into the right ventricle of the heart via the great vein.<ref name=":1"/> Galen also proposed a theory on how blood receives air from the lungs to be distributed throughout the body. He declared that the venous artery carried air from the lungs into the left ventricle of the heart to mix with created blood from the liver.<ref name=":1"/> This same venous artery allowed for an exchange of waste products from the blood back into the lungs to be exhaled.<ref name=":1"/> In order to receive air from the lungs in the left ventricle, the new blood needed to get there from the right ventricle. Thus, Galen asserted that there are small holes in the septum dividing the left and right sides of the heart; these holes allowed the blood to pass through easily to receive air and exchange the aforementioned waste products.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuusela|first=P. J.|date=2014|title=The heart exhibits right to left communication between the fibres of the muscular part of the interventricular septum|url=https://journals.viamedica.pl/folia_morphologica/article/view/FM.2014.0006|journal=Folia Morphologica|language=en|volume=73|issue=1|pages=42–50|doi=10.5603/FM.2014.0006|pmid=24590522|issn=1644-3284|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, [[nervous system]], [[respiratory system]], and other structures, his work contained scientific errors.<ref name="Galen on the brain"/> Galen believed the circulatory system to consist of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than a single unified system of circulation. He believed venous blood to be generated in the liver, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated in the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver or the heart, completing the cycle. Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called the [[rete mirabile]] in the carotid sinus.<ref name="MarkGrant"/> Both of these theories of the circulation of blood were later (beginning with works of [[Ibn al-Nafis]] published {{Circa|1242|lk=no}}) shown to be incorrect.<ref name="Furley1984">[[David J. Furley|Furley, D]], and J. Wilkie, 1984, ''Galen On Respiration and the Arteries'', Princeton University Press, and Bylebyl, J (ed), 1979, ''William Harvey and His Age'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press</ref> | ||
Galen was also a pioneer in research about the human spine. His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human spine, [[spinal cord]], and [[vertebral column]]. Galen also played a major role in the discoveries of the [[central nervous system]]. He was also able to describe the nerves that emerge from the spine, which is integral to his research about the nervous system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasipoularides|first=Ares|title=Galen, father of systematic medicine. An essay on the evolution of modern medicine and cardiology|journal=International Journal of Cardiology|year=2014|volume=172|issue=1|pages=47–58|doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.12.166|pmid=24461486}}</ref> Galen went on to be the first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Galen: A Pioneer of Spine Research : Spine|language=en-US|work=LWW|url=https://journals.lww.com/spinejournal/Abstract/1999/11150/Galen__A_Pioneer_of_Spine_Research.12.aspx|access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref> He worked with pigs and studied their [[neuroanatomy]] by severing different nerves either totally or partially to see how it affected the body. He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal cord and nerves. In his work ''De motu musculorum'', Galen explained the difference between [[motor nerve|motor]] and [[sensory nerve]]s, discussed the concept of [[muscle tone]], and explained the difference between [[agonist (muscle)|agonists]] and [[antagonist (muscle)|antagonists]]. | Galen was also a pioneer in research about the human spine. His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human spine, [[spinal cord]], and [[vertebral column]]. Galen also played a major role in the discoveries of the [[central nervous system]]. He was also able to describe the nerves that emerge from the spine, which is integral to his research about the nervous system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasipoularides|first=Ares|title=Galen, father of systematic medicine. An essay on the evolution of modern medicine and cardiology|journal=International Journal of Cardiology|year=2014|volume=172|issue=1|pages=47–58|doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.12.166|pmid=24461486}}</ref> Galen went on to be the first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Galen: A Pioneer of Spine Research : Spine|language=en-US|work=LWW|url=https://journals.lww.com/spinejournal/Abstract/1999/11150/Galen__A_Pioneer_of_Spine_Research.12.aspx|access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref> He worked with pigs and studied their [[neuroanatomy]] by severing different nerves either totally or partially to see how it affected the body. He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal cord and nerves. In his work ''De motu musculorum'', Galen explained the difference between [[motor nerve|motor]] and [[sensory nerve]]s, discussed the concept of [[muscle tone]], and explained the difference between [[agonist (muscle)|agonists]] and [[antagonist (muscle)|antagonists]]. | ||
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Galen's work on animals led to some inaccuracies, most notably his anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog's. Though incorrect in his studies of human reproduction and reproductive anatomy, he came very close to identifying the ovaries as analogous to the male testes. [[Reproduction]] was a controversial topic in Galen's lifetime, as there was much debate over if the male was solely responsible for the seed, or if the woman was also responsible. | Galen's work on animals led to some inaccuracies, most notably his anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog's. Though incorrect in his studies of human reproduction and reproductive anatomy, he came very close to identifying the ovaries as analogous to the male testes. [[Reproduction]] was a controversial topic in Galen's lifetime, as there was much debate over if the male was solely responsible for the seed, or if the woman was also responsible. | ||
Through his vivisection practices, Galen also proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. One of the most famous experiments that he recreated in public was the squealing pig: Galen would cut open a pig, and while it was squealing he would tie off the recurrent laryngeal nerve, or vocal cords, showing they controlled the making of sound. He used the same method to tie off the ureters to prove his theories of kidney and bladder function. Galen believed the human body had three interconnected systems that allowed it to work. The first system that he theorized consisted of the brain and the nerves, responsible for thought and sensation. The second theorized system was the heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be responsible for providing life-giving energy. The last theorized system was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutrition and growth. Galen also theorized that | Through his vivisection practices, Galen also proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. One of the most famous experiments that he recreated in public was the squealing pig: Galen would cut open a pig, and while it was squealing he would tie off the recurrent laryngeal nerve, or vocal cords, showing they controlled the making of sound. He used the same method to tie off the ureters to prove his theories of kidney and bladder function. Galen believed the human body had three interconnected systems that allowed it to work. The first system that he theorized consisted of the brain and the nerves, responsible for thought and sensation. The second theorized system was the heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be responsible for providing life-giving energy. The last theorized system was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutrition and growth. Galen also theorized that the liver was the source of venous blood. | ||
===Localization of function=== | ===Localization of function=== | ||
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==Published works== | ==Published works== | ||
{{Main|Galenic corpus}} | {{Main|Galenic corpus}} | ||
[[Image:Galeni De curandi ratione V00212 00000008.tif|thumb|''De curandi ratione'']] | [[Image:Galeni De curandi ratione V00212 00000008.tif|thumb|''De curandi ratione'']] | ||
Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from [[Augustine of Hippo]].<ref name="kotrc">Kotrc RF, Walters KR. A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic. Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256–304</ref> So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the [[extant literature]] from ancient Greece.<ref name="ustun"/><ref name="kotrc"/> It has been reported that Galen employed twenty [[scribe]]s to write down his words.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Younker|first=J. Marin|title=Bleed, blister, puke, and purge : America's medical middle ages|date=2018|isbn=978-1-5415-8168-5|location=San Francisco|publisher=Zest Books|pages=51|oclc=1132383841}}</ref> Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises,<ref name="IIIDorn2006">James E. McClellan III; Harold Dorn. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJgp94zNwNQC Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction]''. JHU Press; 14 April 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-8018-8360-6}}. p. 92.</ref> amounting to some 10 million words.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Although his surviving works amount to some 3 million words,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Medical-humanities/funded-projects/major-initiatives/wtdv030244.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219011857/http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Medical-humanities/funded-projects/major-initiatives/wtdv030244.htm|url-status=dead|title=Philip van der Eijk: Translating Galen|archivedate=19 December 2013}}</ref> this is thought to represent less than a third of his complete writings. In 191, or more likely in 192, a fire in the [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]] destroyed many of his works, in particular treatises on philosophy.{{sfn|Houston|2003|pp=45–47}} | Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from [[Augustine of Hippo]].<ref name="kotrc">Kotrc RF, Walters KR. A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic. Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256–304</ref> So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the [[extant literature]] from ancient Greece.<ref name="ustun"/><ref name="kotrc"/> It has been reported that Galen employed twenty [[scribe]]s to write down his words.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Younker|first=J. Marin|title=Bleed, blister, puke, and purge : America's medical middle ages|date=2018|isbn=978-1-5415-8168-5|location=San Francisco|publisher=Zest Books|pages=51|oclc=1132383841}}</ref> Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises,<ref name="IIIDorn2006">James E. McClellan III; Harold Dorn. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJgp94zNwNQC Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction]''. JHU Press; 14 April 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-8018-8360-6}}. p. 92.</ref> amounting to some 10 million words.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Although his surviving works amount to some 3 million words,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Medical-humanities/funded-projects/major-initiatives/wtdv030244.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219011857/http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Funding/Medical-humanities/funded-projects/major-initiatives/wtdv030244.htm|url-status=dead|title=Philip van der Eijk: Translating Galen|archivedate=19 December 2013}}</ref> this is thought to represent less than a third of his complete writings. In 191, or more likely in 192, a fire in the [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]] destroyed many of his works, in particular treatises on philosophy.{{sfn|Houston|2003|pp=45–47}} | ||
Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the [[Early Middle Ages]], when very few Latin scholars could read Greek. However, in general, Galen and the [[Ancient Greek medicine|ancient Greek medical tradition]] continued to be studied and followed in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], commonly known as the Byzantine Empire. All of the extant Greek manuscripts of Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars. | Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the [[Early Middle Ages]], when very few Latin scholars could read Greek. However, in general, Galen and the [[Ancient Greek medicine|ancient Greek medical tradition]] continued to be studied and followed in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], commonly known as the Byzantine Empire. All of the extant Greek manuscripts of Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars. | ||
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{{refbegin}} | {{refbegin}} | ||
*Algra K (ed.) ''The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-90-04-35275-9}} | *Algra K (ed.) ''The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-90-04-35275-9}} | ||
*{{Cite journal |last=Nutton |first=Vivian |date=2008-01-01 |title=Book Review: Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe |journal=Medical History |language=en |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=144–145 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300002209 |pmc=2175042 }} | *{{Cite journal |last=Nutton |first=Vivian |date=2008-01-01 |title=Book Review: Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe |journal=Medical History |language=en |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=144–145 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300002209 |pmc=2175042}} | ||
*[[Kai Brodersen|Brodersen K.]] ''Galenos, Die verbrannte Bibliothek: Peri Alypias''. Marix, Wiesbaden 2015, {{ISBN|978-3-7374-0962-9}} | *[[Kai Brodersen|Brodersen K.]] ''Galenos, Die verbrannte Bibliothek: Peri Alypias''. Marix, Wiesbaden 2015, {{ISBN|978-3-7374-0962-9}} | ||
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=al9FH5tynlAC Debru A. "Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium", Lille, 16–18 March 1995 Brill, 1997], {{ISBN|978-90-04-10403-7}} | *[https://books.google.com/books?id=al9FH5tynlAC Debru A. "Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium", Lille, 16–18 March 1995 Brill, 1997], {{ISBN|978-90-04-10403-7}} | ||
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*[https://books.google.com/books?id=X8eyqsqFgQ8C Everson S. (ed.) ''Language''. Cambridge University Press, 1994], {{ISBN|978-0-521-35795-1}} | *[https://books.google.com/books?id=X8eyqsqFgQ8C Everson S. (ed.) ''Language''. Cambridge University Press, 1994], {{ISBN|978-0-521-35795-1}} | ||
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hf1htsj-usAC French RK. ''Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment''. Cambridge University Press, 2003.] {{ISBN|978-0-521-00761-0}} | *[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hf1htsj-usAC French RK. ''Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment''. Cambridge University Press, 2003.] {{ISBN|978-0-521-00761-0}} | ||
*{{cite web |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/gleason/010702.pdf |last1=Gleason |first1=MW |title=Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen's Anatomy Demonstrations Version 5 |work= Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics |date=January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531062146/http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/gleason/010702.pdf |archive-date= May 31, 2022 }} | *{{cite web |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/gleason/010702.pdf |last1=Gleason |first1=MW |title=Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen's Anatomy Demonstrations Version 5 |work=Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics |date=January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531062146/http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/gleason/010702.pdf |archive-date=May 31, 2022}} | ||
*Gleason MW. ''Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome''. Princeton 1995 | *Gleason MW. ''[[Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome]]''. Princeton 1995 | ||
*[http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521819541 Hankinson RJ (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Galen. CUP 2008] {{ISBN|978-0-521-81954-1}} | *[http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521819541 Hankinson RJ (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Galen. CUP 2008] {{ISBN|978-0-521-81954-1}} | ||
*Hankinson R.J. ''Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought''. Oxford University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|978-0-19-924656-4}} | *Hankinson R.J. ''Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought''. Oxford University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|978-0-19-924656-4}} | ||
*{{cite journal|title=Galen, His Books, and the Horrea Piperataria at Rome|first=George W.|last=Houston|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome|volume=48|pages=45–51|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2003|doi=10.2307/4238804|jstor=4238804}} | *{{cite journal |title=Galen, His Books, and the Horrea Piperataria at Rome |first=George W. |last=Houston |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=48 |pages=45–51 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2003 |doi=10.2307/4238804 |jstor=4238804}} | ||
*[[Johannes Ilberg]]. "Aus Galens Praxis. Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum", Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276–312, 1905 | *[[Johannes Ilberg]]. "Aus Galens Praxis. Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum", Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276–312, 1905 | ||
*[[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]] (ed.). ''Jawami Kitab Al-Nabd Al-Saghir by Galen'' (2007), [http://www.ibnsinaacademy.org Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences], Aligarh, India; {{ISBN|978-81-901362-7-3}} | *[[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]] (ed.). ''Jawami Kitab Al-Nabd Al-Saghir by Galen'' (2007), [http://www.ibnsinaacademy.org Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences], Aligarh, India; {{ISBN|978-81-901362-7-3}} | ||
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{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|others=yes|about=yes|label=Galen|viaf=|lccn=|lcheading=|wikititle=}} | {{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|others=yes|about=yes|label=Galen|viaf=|lccn=|lcheading=|wikititle=}} | ||
{{refbegin}} | {{refbegin}} | ||
*{{cite conference|last1=Bacalexi|first1=Dina|title=Ancient medicine, humanistic medicine: the Renaissance commentaries of Galen, transmission and transformation of knowledge|work=International Conference Scientiae 2014: Disciplines of knowing in the Early Modern World, Scientiae International Research Group|date=April 2014|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01639720/document|publisher=HAL|location=Vienna}} | *{{cite conference |last1=Bacalexi |first1=Dina |title=Ancient medicine, humanistic medicine: the Renaissance commentaries of Galen, transmission and transformation of knowledge |work=International Conference Scientiae 2014: Disciplines of knowing in the Early Modern World, Scientiae International Research Group |date=April 2014 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01639720/document |publisher=HAL |location=Vienna}} | ||
*Garcia Ballester, Luis. 2002. ''Galen and Galenism. Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance.'' Collected Studies Series 710. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum. | *Garcia Ballester, Luis. 2002. ''Galen and Galenism. Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance.'' Collected Studies Series 710. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum. | ||
*Gilbert, N. Ward. 1960. ''Renaissance Concepts of Method.'' New York: Columbia University Press. | *Gilbert, N. Ward. 1960. ''Renaissance Concepts of Method.'' New York: Columbia University Press. | ||
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*Speziale, Fabrizio. ''Culture persane et médecine ayurvédique an Asie du Sud'', Leiden – Boston, E. J. Brill, Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science. Texts and Studies, 2018. {{ISBN|978-90-04-35275-9}}. | *Speziale, Fabrizio. ''Culture persane et médecine ayurvédique an Asie du Sud'', Leiden – Boston, E. J. Brill, Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science. Texts and Studies, 2018. {{ISBN|978-90-04-35275-9}}. | ||
*Walzer, Richard. 1949. ''Galen On Jews and Christians.'' London: Oxford University Press. | *Walzer, Richard. 1949. ''Galen On Jews and Christians.'' London: Oxford University Press. | ||
*Xenophontos, Sophia. ''Medicine and practical ethics in Galen''. Cambridge, 2024 (open access) | |||
{{refend}} | {{refend}} | ||
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{{refbegin}} | {{refbegin}} | ||
*Boudon-Millot, V. ''Introduction Générale, Sur L'ordre de ses Propres Livres, Sur ses Propres Livres, Que L'excellent Médecin est Aussi Philosophe'' Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007. | *Boudon-Millot, V. ''Introduction Générale, Sur L'ordre de ses Propres Livres, Sur ses Propres Livres, Que L'excellent Médecin est Aussi Philosophe'' Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007. | ||
*{{cite book|last=Brock|first=Arthur John|title=Greek Medicine, Being Extracts Illustrative of Medical Writers from Hippocrates to Galen|url=https://archive.org/details/greekmedicinebei0000broc|url-access=registration|year=1929|publisher=Dent|location=London}} | *{{cite book |last=Brock |first=Arthur John |title=Greek Medicine, Being Extracts Illustrative of Medical Writers from Hippocrates to Galen |url=https://archive.org/details/greekmedicinebei0000broc |url-access=registration |year=1929 |publisher=Dent |location=London}} | ||
*{{cite book|last=Galen|title=On the Therapeutic Method|year=1991|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|others= R.J. Hankinson, trans}} | *{{cite book |last=Galen |title=On the Therapeutic Method |year=1991 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |others=R.J. Hankinson, trans}} | ||
*{{Cite book |last= Singer |first= R. N. |year= 2023 |title= Galen: Writings on Health |series= Cambridge Galen Translations |location= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-1-009-15951-7 }} | *{{Cite book |last=Singer |first=R. N. |year=2023 |title=Galen: Writings on Health |series=Cambridge Galen Translations |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-15951-7}} | ||
{{refend}} | {{refend}} | ||
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*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/galen/ Galen] entry in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]*[http://classicsindex.wikispaces.com/Galen Classicsindex: Galen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224233754/http://classicsindex.wikispaces.com/Galen |date=24 December 2008 }} | *[http://www.iep.utm.edu/galen/ Galen] entry in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]*[http://classicsindex.wikispaces.com/Galen Classicsindex: Galen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224233754/http://classicsindex.wikispaces.com/Galen |date=24 December 2008 }} | ||
*[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Galen&redirect=true Works by Galen at Perseus Digital Library] | *[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Galen&redirect=true Works by Galen at Perseus Digital Library] | ||
*[ | *[https://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/editionencmg_05.html Online Editions by the ''Corpus Medicorum Graecorum''] | ||
*[http://galen.bbaw.de/online-publications/hippokrates-und-galenbibliographie-fichtner Gerhard Fichtner, Galen bibliography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712011351/http://galen.bbaw.de/online-publications/hippokrates-und-galenbibliographie-fichtner|date=12 July 2012}} | *[http://galen.bbaw.de/online-publications/hippokrates-und-galenbibliographie-fichtner Gerhard Fichtner, Galen bibliography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712011351/http://galen.bbaw.de/online-publications/hippokrates-und-galenbibliographie-fichtner|date=12 July 2012}} | ||
*[http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/artifacts/antiqua/galen.cfm University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library. Galen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210172030/http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/artifacts/antiqua/galen.cfm|date=10 December 2007}} | *[http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/artifacts/antiqua/galen.cfm University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library. Galen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210172030/http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/artifacts/antiqua/galen.cfm|date=10 December 2007}} | ||
*[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/a-b/ancientsurgery7.html Channel 4 – History – Ancient surgery] | *[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/a-b/ancientsurgery7.html Channel 4 – History – Ancient surgery] | ||
*[https://exploregalen.com/ The Empire's Physician: Prosperity, Plague, and Healing in Ancient Rome], NYU's Institute for the Study of the Ancient World | *[https://exploregalen.com/ The Empire's Physician: Prosperity, Plague, and Healing in Ancient Rome], NYU's Institute for the Study of the Ancient World | ||
* [https:// | *[https://engines.egr.uh.edu/episode/2097 Lienhard JH. Engines of our Ingenuity, Number 2097 – Constantine the African] | ||
*[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galen Nutton V. Galen of Pergamum, Encyclopædia Britannica] | |||
*[https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgajpd/medicina%20antiqua/bio_gal.html Pearcy L. Galen: A biographical sketch. Medicina Antiqua] | |||
*[https://www.britannica.com/ | |||
*[ | |||
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070406023427/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0109.html Taylor HO. Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 – "The Final System: Galen"]}} | *{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070406023427/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0109.html Taylor HO. Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 – "The Final System: Galen"]}} | ||
*[http://robl.de/galen/galen.htm Galenus von Pergamon – Leben und Werk. ''Includes alphabetical list of Latin Titles''] | *[http://robl.de/galen/galen.htm Galenus von Pergamon – Leben und Werk. ''Includes alphabetical list of Latin Titles''] | ||
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170221134108/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html Michael Servetus Research] Website with a study on the ''Opera Omnia of Galen'' by the galenist Michael de Villanueva, and also the first description of the [[pulmonary circulation]] in his Manuscript of Paris in 1546. | *[https://web.archive.org/web/20170221134108/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html Michael Servetus Research] Website with a study on the ''Opera Omnia of Galen'' by the galenist Michael de Villanueva, and also the first description of the [[pulmonary circulation]] in his Manuscript of Paris in 1546. | ||
*''Claudii Galeni opera omnia'' in ''Medicorum graecorum opera quae exstant, editionem curavit D. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, Lipsiae prostat in officina libraria Car. Cnoblochii'', 1821–1833 in [http://www2.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/livanc/?intro=galien_vf&statut=charge&fille=o&cotemere=45674 20 volumines]. | *''Claudii Galeni opera omnia'' in ''Medicorum graecorum opera quae exstant, editionem curavit D. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, Lipsiae prostat in officina libraria Car. Cnoblochii'', 1821–1833 in [http://www2.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/livanc/?intro=galien_vf&statut=charge&fille=o&cotemere=45674 20 volumines]. | ||
*[ | *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03c4dys Discussion of Galens] on [[BBC Radio 4]]'s programme ''[[In Our Time (radio series)|In Our Time]]'' | ||
*[http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-18076 Digital edition: Galeni septima Classis (1550)] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]] | *[http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-18076 Digital edition: Galeni septima Classis (1550)] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]] | ||
*[http://digitalgalen.net/ The Galen Syriac Palimpsest – On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs] | *[http://digitalgalen.net/ The Galen Syriac Palimpsest – On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs] | ||
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[[Category:216 deaths]] | [[Category:216 deaths]] | ||
[[Category:2nd-century births]] | [[Category:2nd-century births]] | ||
[[Category:2nd-century Greek | [[Category:2nd-century Greek medical doctors]] | ||
[[Category:2nd-century Greek philosophers]] | [[Category:2nd-century Greek philosophers]] | ||
[[Category:2nd-century Roman | [[Category:2nd-century Roman medical doctors]] | ||
[[Category:2nd-century writers]] | [[Category:2nd-century writers]] | ||
[[Category:3rd-century deaths]] | [[Category:3rd-century deaths]] | ||
[[Category:3rd-century Greek | [[Category:3rd-century Greek medical doctors]] | ||
[[Category:3rd-century Greek writers]] | [[Category:3rd-century Greek writers]] | ||
[[Category:3rd-century Greek philosophers]] | [[Category:3rd-century Greek philosophers]] | ||
[[Category:3rd-century Roman | [[Category:3rd-century Roman medical doctors]] | ||
[[Category:Aelii]] | [[Category:Aelii]] | ||
[[Category:Ancient Greek anatomists]] | [[Category:Ancient Greek anatomists]] | ||