Carmichael number

In number theory, a Carmichael number is a composite number Template:Tmath which in modular arithmetic satisfies the congruence relation:

$b^{n}\equiv b{\pmod {n}}$

for all integers Template:Tmath. The relation may also be expressed in the form:

$b^{n-1}\equiv 1{\pmod {n}}$

for all integers $b$ that are relatively prime to Template:Tmath. They are infinite in number.

File:Robert Daniel Carmichael.gif

Robert Daniel Carmichael

They constitute the comparatively rare instances where the strict converse of Fermat's Little Theorem does not hold. This fact precludes the use of that theorem as an absolute test of primality.

The Carmichael numbers form the subset K₁ of the Knödel numbers.

The Carmichael numbers were named after the American mathematician Robert Carmichael by Nicolaas Beeger, in 1950. Øystein Ore had referred to them in 1948 as numbers with the "Fermat property", or "F numbers" for short.

Overview

Fermat's little theorem states that if $p$ is a prime number, then for any integer Template:Tmath, the number $b^{p}-b$ is an integer multiple of Template:Tmath. Carmichael numbers are composite numbers which have the same property. Carmichael numbers are also called Fermat pseudoprimes or absolute Fermat pseudoprimes. A Carmichael number will pass a Fermat primality test to every base $b$ relatively prime to the number, even though it is not actually prime. This makes tests based on Fermat's Little Theorem less effective than strong probable prime tests such as the Baillie–PSW primality test and the Miller–Rabin primality test.

However, no Carmichael number is either an Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime or a strong pseudoprime to every base relatively prime to it so, in theory, either an Euler or a strong probable prime test could prove that a Carmichael number is, in fact, composite.

Arnault gives a 397-digit Carmichael number $N$ that is a strong pseudoprime to all prime bases less than 307:

$N=p\cdot (313(p-1)+1)\cdot (353(p-1)+1)$

where

$p=$ ​

is a 131-digit prime. $p$ is the smallest prime factor of Template:Tmath, so this Carmichael number is also a (not necessarily strong) pseudoprime to all bases less than Template:Tmath.

As numbers become larger, Carmichael numbers become increasingly rare. For example, there are 20138200 Carmichael numbers between 1 and 10²¹ (approximately one in 50 trillion (5×10¹³) numbers).

Korselt's criterion

An alternative and equivalent definition of Carmichael numbers is given by Korselt's criterion.

Theorem (A. Korselt 1899): A positive composite integer $n$ is a Carmichael number if and only if $n$ is square-free, and for all prime divisors $p$ of Template:Tmath, it is true that Template:Tmath.

It follows from this theorem that all Carmichael numbers are odd, since any even composite number that is square-free (and hence has only one prime factor of two) will have at least one odd prime factor, and thus $p-1\mid n-1$ results in an even dividing an odd, a contradiction. (The oddness of Carmichael numbers also follows from the fact that $-1$ is a Fermat witness for any even composite number.) From the criterion it also follows that Carmichael numbers are cyclic. Additionally, it follows that there are no Carmichael numbers with exactly two prime divisors.

Discovery

The first seven Carmichael numbers, from 561 to 8911, were all found by the Czech mathematician Václav Šimerka in 1885 (thus preceding not just Carmichael but also Korselt, although Šimerka did not find anything like Korselt's criterion). His work, published in Czech scientific journal Časopis pro pěstování matematiky a fysiky, however, remained unnoticed.

File:Vaclav Simerka.jpg

Václav Šimerka listed the first seven Carmichael numbers

Korselt was the first who observed the basic properties of Carmichael numbers, but he did not give any examples.

That 561 is a Carmichael number can be seen with Korselt's criterion. The first seven Carmichael numbers are Template:OEIS:

$~~561=3\cdot 11\cdot 17\qquad (2\mid ~~560;\quad 10\mid ~~560;\quad 16\mid ~~560)$

$1105=5\cdot 13\cdot 17\qquad (4\mid 1104;\quad 12\mid 1104;\quad 16\mid 1104)$

$1729=7\cdot 13\cdot 19\qquad (6\mid 1728;\quad 12\mid 1728;\quad 18\mid 1728)$

$2465=5\cdot 17\cdot 29\qquad (4\mid 2464;\quad 16\mid 2464;\quad 28\mid 2464)$

$2821=7\cdot 13\cdot 31\qquad (6\mid 2820;\quad 12\mid 2820;\quad 30\mid 2820)$

$6601=7\cdot 23\cdot 41\qquad (6\mid 6600;\quad 22\mid 6600;\quad 40\mid 6600)$

$8911=7\cdot 19\cdot 67\qquad (6\mid 8910;\quad 18\mid 8910;\quad 66\mid 8910).$

In 1910, Carmichael himself also published the smallest such number, 561, and the numbers were later named after him.

Jack Chernick proved a theorem in 1939 which can be used to construct a subset of Carmichael numbers. The number $(6k+1)(12k+1)(18k+1)$ is a Carmichael number if its three factors are all prime. Whether this formula produces an infinite quantity of Carmichael numbers is an open question (though it is implied by Dickson's conjecture).

Paul Erdős heuristically argued there should be infinitely many Carmichael numbers. In 1994 W. R. (Red) Alford, Andrew Granville and Carl Pomerance used a bound on Olson's constant to show that there really do exist infinitely many Carmichael numbers. Specifically, they showed that for sufficiently large Template:Tmath, there are at least $n^{2/7}$ Carmichael numbers between 1 and Template:Tmath.

Thomas Wright proved that if $a$ and $m$ are relatively prime, then there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers in the arithmetic progression Template:Tmath, where Template:Tmath.

Löh and Niebuhr in 1992 found some very large Carmichael numbers, including one with 1101518 factors and over 16 million digits. This has been improved to 10333229505 prime factors and 295486761787 digits, so the largest known Carmichael number is much greater than the largest known prime.

Properties

Factorizations

Carmichael numbers have at least three prime factors. The first Carmichael numbers with Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle k=3,4,5,\ldots } prime factors are Template:OEIS:

k
3	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 561=3\cdot 11\cdot 17\,}
4	$41041=7\cdot 11\cdot 13\cdot 41\,$
5	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 825265=5\cdot 7\cdot 17\cdot 19\cdot 73\,}
6	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 321197185=5\cdot 19\cdot 23\cdot 29\cdot 37\cdot 137\,}
7	$5394826801=7\cdot 13\cdot 17\cdot 23\cdot 31\cdot 67\cdot 73\,$
8	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 232250619601=7\cdot 11\cdot 13\cdot 17\cdot 31\cdot 37\cdot 73\cdot 163\,}
9	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 9746347772161=7\cdot 11\cdot 13\cdot 17\cdot 19\cdot 31\cdot 37\cdot 41\cdot 641\,}

The first Carmichael numbers with 4 prime factors are Template:OEIS:

i
1	$41041=7\cdot 11\cdot 13\cdot 41\,$
2	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 62745=3\cdot 5\cdot 47\cdot 89\,}
3	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 63973=7\cdot 13\cdot 19\cdot 37\,}
4	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 75361=11\cdot 13\cdot 17\cdot 31\,}
5	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 101101=7\cdot 11\cdot 13\cdot 101\,}
6	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 126217=7\cdot 13\cdot 19\cdot 73\,}
7	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 172081=7\cdot 13\cdot 31\cdot 61\,}
8	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 188461=7\cdot 13\cdot 19\cdot 109\,}
9	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 278545=5\cdot 17\cdot 29\cdot 113\,}
10	Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 340561=13\cdot 17\cdot 23\cdot 67\,}

The second Carmichael number (1105) can be expressed as the sum of two squares in more ways than any smaller number. The third Carmichael number (1729) is the Hardy-Ramanujan Number: the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes (of positive numbers) in two different ways.

Distribution

Let $C(X)$ denote the number of Carmichael numbers less than or equal to Template:Tmath. The distribution of Carmichael numbers by powers of 10 Template:OEIS:

$n$	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20	21
Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle C(10^{n})}	0	0	1	7	16	43	105	255	646	1547	3605	8241	19279	44706	105212	246683	585355	1401644	3381806	8220777	20138200

In 1953, Knödel proved the upper bound:

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle C(X)<X\exp \left({-k_{1}\left(\log X\log \log X\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}}\right)}

for some constant Template:Tmath.

In 1956, Erdős improved the bound to

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle C(X)<X\exp \left({\frac {-k_{2}\log X\log \log \log X}{\log \log X}}\right)}

for some constant Template:Tmath. He further gave a heuristic argument suggesting that this upper bound should be close to the true growth rate of Template:Tmath.

In the other direction, Alford, Granville and Pomerance proved in 1994 that for sufficiently large X,

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle C(X)>X^{\frac {2}{7}}.}

In 2005, this bound was further improved by Harman to

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle C(X)>X^{0.332}}

who subsequently improved the exponent to Template:Tmath.

Regarding the asymptotic distribution of Carmichael numbers, there have been several conjectures. In 1956, Erdős conjectured that there were Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle X^{1-o(1)}} Carmichael numbers for X sufficiently large. In 1981, Pomerance sharpened Erdős' heuristic arguments to conjecture that there are at least

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle X\cdot L(X)^{-1+o(1)}}

Carmichael numbers up to Template:Tmath, where Template:Tmath.

However, inside current computational ranges (such as the count of Carmichael numbers performed by GoutierTemplate:OEIS up to 10²²), these conjectures are not yet borne out by the data; empirically, the exponent is Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle C(X)\approx X^{0.35}} for the highest available count (C(X) = 49679870 for X = 10²²).

In 2021, Daniel Larsen proved an analogue of Bertrand's postulate for Carmichael numbers first conjectured by Alford, Granville, and Pomerance in 1994. Using techniques developed by Yitang Zhang and James Maynard to establish results concerning small gaps between primes, his work yielded the much stronger statement that, for any $\delta >0$ and sufficiently large $x$ in terms of Template:Tmath, there will always be at least

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \exp {\left({\frac {\log {x}}{(\log \log {x})^{2+\delta }}}\right)}}

Carmichael numbers between $x$ and

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle x+{\frac {x}{(\log {x})^{\frac {1}{2+\delta }}}}.}

Generalizations

The notion of Carmichael number generalizes to a Carmichael ideal in any number field Template:Tmath. For any nonzero prime ideal ${\mathfrak {p}}$ in Template:Tmath, we have $\alpha ^{{\rm {N}}({\mathfrak {p}})}\equiv \alpha {\bmod {\mathfrak {p}}}$ for all $\alpha$ in Template:Tmath, where Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\rm {N}}({\mathfrak {p}})} is the norm of the ideal Template:Tmath. (This generalizes Fermat's little theorem, that Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle m^{p}\equiv m{\bmod {p}}} for all integers Template:Tmath when Template:Tmath is prime.) Call a nonzero ideal Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {a}}} in Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}_{K}} Carmichael if it is not a prime ideal and Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \alpha ^{{\rm {N}}({\mathfrak {a}})}\equiv \alpha {\bmod {\mathfrak {a}}}} for all Template:Tmath, where Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\rm {N}}({\mathfrak {a}})} is the norm of the ideal Template:Tmath. When Template:Tmath is Template:Tmath, the ideal Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {a}}} is principal, and if we let Template:Tmath be its positive generator then the ideal Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {a}}=(a)} is Carmichael exactly when Template:Tmath is a Carmichael number in the usual sense.

When Template:Tmath is larger than the rationals it is easy to write down Carmichael ideals in Template:Tmath: for any prime number Template:Tmath that splits completely in Template:Tmath, the principal ideal Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle p{\mathcal {O}}_{K}} is a Carmichael ideal. Since infinitely many prime numbers split completely in any number field, there are infinitely many Carmichael ideals in Template:Tmath. For example, if Template:Tmath is any prime number that is 1 mod 4, the ideal Template:Tmath in the Gaussian integers Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} [i]} is a Carmichael ideal.

Both prime and Carmichael numbers satisfy the following equality:

Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \gcd \left(\sum _{x=1}^{n-1}x^{n-1},n\right)=1.}

Lucas–Carmichael number

Main article: Lucas–Carmichael number

A positive composite integer $n$ is a Lucas–Carmichael number if and only if $n$ is square-free, and for all prime divisors $p$ of Template:Tmath, it is true that Template:Tmath. The first Lucas–Carmichael numbers are:

399, 935, 2015, 2915, 4991, 5719, 7055, 8855, 12719, 18095, 20705, 20999, 22847, 29315, 31535, 46079, 51359, 60059, 63503, 67199, 73535, 76751, 80189, 81719, 88559, 90287, ... Template:OEIS

Quasi–Carmichael number

Quasi–Carmichael numbers are squarefree composite numbers Template:Tmath with the property that for every prime factor Template:Tmath of Template:Tmath, Template:Tmath divides Template:Tmath positively with Template:Tmath being any integer besides 0. If Template:Tmath, these are Carmichael numbers, and if Template:Tmath, these are Lucas–Carmichael numbers. The first Quasi–Carmichael numbers are:

35, 77, 143, 165, 187, 209, 221, 231, 247, 273, 299, 323, 357, 391, 399, 437, 493, 527, 561, 589, 598, 713, 715, 899, 935, 943, 989, 1015, 1073, 1105, 1147, 1189, 1247, 1271, 1295, 1333, 1517, 1537, 1547, 1591, 1595, 1705, 1729, ... Template:OEIS

Knödel number

Main article: Knödel number

An n-Knödel number for a given positive integer n is a composite number m with the property that each Template:Tmath coprime to m satisfies Template:Tmath. The Template:Tmath case are Carmichael numbers.

Higher-order Carmichael numbers

Carmichael numbers can be generalized using concepts of abstract algebra.

The above definition states that a composite integer n is Carmichael precisely when the nth-power-raising function p_n from the ring Z_n of integers modulo n to itself is the identity function. The identity is the only Z_n-algebra endomorphism on Z_n so we can restate the definition as asking that p_n be an algebra endomorphism of Z_n. As above, p_n satisfies the same property whenever n is prime.

The nth-power-raising function p_n is also defined on any Z_n-algebra A. A theorem states that n is prime if and only if all such functions p_n are algebra endomorphisms.

In-between these two conditions lies the definition of Carmichael number of order m for any positive integer m as any composite number n such that p_n is an endomorphism on every Z_n-algebra that can be generated as Z_n-module by m elements. Carmichael numbers of order 1 are just the ordinary Carmichael numbers.

An order-2 Carmichael number

According to Howe, 17 · 31 · 41 · 43 · 89 · 97 · 167 · 331 is an order 2 Carmichael number. This product is equal to 443372888629441.

Properties

Korselt's criterion can be generalized to higher-order Carmichael numbers, as shown by Howe.

A heuristic argument, given in the same paper, appears to suggest that there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers of order m, for any m. However, not a single Carmichael number of order 3 or above is known.

References

• Carmichael, R. D. (1910). "Note on a new number theory function". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 16 (5): 232–238. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1910-01892-9.
• Carmichael, R. D. (1912). "On composite numbers P which satisfy the Fermat congruence Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle a^{P-1}\equiv 1{\bmod {P}}} ". American Mathematical Monthly. 19 (2): 22–27. doi:10.2307/2972687. JSTOR 2972687.
• Chernick, J. (1939). "On Fermat's simple theorem" (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 45 (4): 269–274. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1939-06953-X.
• Korselt, A. R. (1899). "Problème chinois". L'Intermédiaire des Mathématiciens. 6: 142–143.
• Löh, G.; Niebuhr, W. (1996). "A new algorithm for constructing large Carmichael numbers" (PDF). Math. Comp. 65 (214): 823–836. Bibcode:1996MaCom..65..823L. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-96-00692-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2003-04-25.
• Ribenboim, P. (1989). The Book of Prime Number Records. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-97042-4.
• Šimerka, V. (1885). "Zbytky z arithmetické posloupnosti (On the remainders of an arithmetic progression)". Časopis Pro Pěstování Matematiky a Fysiky. 14 (5): 221–225. doi:10.21136/CPMF.1885.122245.

External links

• Template:Springer
• Encyclopedia of Mathematics
• Table of Carmichael numbers
• Tables of Carmichael numbers with many prime factors
• Tables of Carmichael numbers below Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 10^{18}}
• Template:MathPages
• Weisstein, Eric W. "Carmichael Number". MathWorld.
• Final Answers Modular Arithmetic