Closed set

This article is about the complement of an open set. For a set closed under an operation, see closure (mathematics). For other uses, see Closed (disambiguation).

In topology, a branch of mathematics, a closed set is a set that contains all of its boundary points. An example is the closed interval Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle [a,b]} , which is closed in the real line because it includes both points $a$ and $b$ of its boundary. In general, a point is on the boundary if every neighborhood of it contains some points that belong to the set, and some points that do not. A set is thus closed if it is equal to its closure, the set obtained by adjoining all boundary points to it.

Closed sets are defined as subsets of topological spaces. The topology of a space is usually described in terms of its open sets, which determine what counts as a "neighborhood" of its points. A set is closed if it is the complement of an open set. In metric spaces, a set is closed if and only if the limit of every convergent sequence of elements in the set has limit in this set; thus a closed set is a set that includes all of its limit points. Because the limits of convergent sequences do not escape a closed set, they are important in many areas of mathematics where limiting arguments are used.

Sets that are both open and closed are called clopen sets.

Definition

Given a topological space $(X,\tau )$, the following statements are equivalent:

1. a set $A\subseteq X$ is closed in $X.$
2. Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A^{c}=X\setminus A} is an open subset of $(X,\tau )$; that is, Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A^{c}\in \tau .}
3. $A$ is equal to its closure in $X.$
4. $A$ contains all of its limit points.
5. $A$ contains all of its boundary points.

An alternative characterization of closed sets is available via sequences and nets. A subset $A$ of a topological space $X$ is closed in $X$ if and only if every limit of every net of elements of $A$ also belongs to $A.$ In a first-countable space (such as a metric space), it is enough to consider only convergent sequences, instead of all nets. One value of this characterization is that it may be used as a definition in the context of convergence spaces, which are more general than topological spaces. Notice that this characterization also depends on the surrounding space $X,$ because whether or not a sequence or net converges in $X$ depends on what points are present in $X.$ A point $x$ in $X$ is said to be close to a subset $A\subseteq X$ if Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle x\in \operatorname {cl} _{X}A} (or equivalently, if $x$ belongs to the closure of $A$ in the topological subspace Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A\cup \{x\},} meaning Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle x\in \operatorname {cl} _{A\cup \{x\}}A} where Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A\cup \{x\}} is endowed with the subspace topology induced on it by $X$). Because the closure of $A$ in $X$ is thus the set of all points in $X$ that are close to Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A,} this terminology allows for an intuitive description of closed subsets:

a subset is closed if and only if it contains every point that is close to it.

In terms of net convergence, a point $x\in X$ is close to a subset $A$ if and only if there exists some net (valued) in $A$ that converges to $x.$ If $X$ is a topological subspace of some other topological space $Y,$ in which case $Y$ is called a topological super-space of $X,$ then there might exist some point in Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle Y\setminus X} that is close to $A$ (although not an element of $X$), which is how it is possible for a subset $A\subseteq X$ to be closed in $X$ but to not be closed in the "larger" surrounding super-space Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle Y.} If $A\subseteq X$ and if $Y$ is any topological super-space of $X$ then $A$ is always a (potentially proper) subset of Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \operatorname {cl} _{Y}A,} which denotes the closure of $A$ in Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle Y;} indeed, even if $A$ is a closed subset of $X$ (which happens if and only if Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A=\operatorname {cl} _{X}A} ), it is nevertheless still possible for $A$ to be a proper subset of Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \operatorname {cl} _{Y}A.} However, $A$ is a closed subset of $X$ if and only if $A=X\cap \operatorname {cl} _{Y}A$ for some (or equivalently, for every) topological super-space $Y$ of $X.$

Closed sets can also be used to characterize continuous functions: a map $f:X\to Y$ is continuous if and only if Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle f\left(\operatorname {cl} _{X}A\right)\subseteq \operatorname {cl} _{Y}(f(A))} for every subset $A\subseteq X$; this can be reworded intuitively as: $f$ is continuous if and only if for every subset Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A\subseteq X,} $f$ maps points that are close to $A$ to points that are close to Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle f(A).} Similarly, $f$ is continuous at a fixed given point $x\in X$ if and only if whenever $x$ is close to a subset Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle A\subseteq X,} then $f(x)$ is close to Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle f(A).}

More about closed sets

The notion of closed set is defined above in terms of open sets, a concept that makes sense for topological spaces, as well as for other spaces that carry topological structures, such as metric spaces, differentiable manifolds, uniform spaces, and gauge spaces.

Whether a set is closed depends on the space in which it is embedded. However, the compact Hausdorff spaces are "absolutely closed", in the sense that, if you embed a compact Hausdorff space $D$ in an arbitrary Hausdorff space $X,$ then $D$ will always be a closed subset of $X$; the "surrounding space" does not matter here. Stone–Čech compactification, a process that turns a completely regular Hausdorff space into a compact Hausdorff space, may be described as adjoining limits of certain nonconvergent nets to the space.

Furthermore, every closed subset of a compact space is compact, and every compact subspace of a Hausdorff space is closed.

Closed sets also give a useful characterization of compactness: a topological space $X$ is compact if and only if every collection of nonempty closed subsets of $X$ with empty intersection admits a finite subcollection with empty intersection.

A topological space $X$ is disconnected if there exist disjoint, nonempty, open subsets $A$ and $B$ of $X$ whose union is $X.$ Furthermore, $X$ is totally disconnected if it has an open basis consisting of closed sets.

Properties

See also: Kuratowski closure axioms

A closed set contains its own boundary. In other words, if you are "outside" a closed set, you may move a small amount in any direction and still stay outside the set. This is also true if the boundary is the empty set, e.g. in the metric space of rational numbers, for the set of numbers of which the square is less than Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle 2.}

• Any intersection of any family of closed sets is closed (this includes intersections of infinitely many closed sets)
• The union of finitely many closed sets is closed.
• The empty set is closed.
• The whole set is closed.

In fact, if given a set $X$ and a collection Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \mathbb {F} \neq \varnothing } of subsets of $X$ such that the elements of Failed to parse (Conversion error. Server ("https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_") reported: "Cannot get mml. Server problem."): {\displaystyle \mathbb {F} } have the properties listed above, then there exists a unique topology $\tau$ on $X$ such that the closed subsets of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (X, \tau)} are exactly those sets that belong to Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathbb{F}.} The intersection property also allows one to define the closure of a set Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} in a space Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X,} which is defined as the smallest closed subset of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} that is a superset of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A.} Specifically, the closure of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} can be constructed as the intersection of all of these closed supersets.

Sets that can be constructed as the union of countably many closed sets are denoted F_σ sets. These sets need not be closed.

Examples

• The closed interval Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [a, b]} of real numbers is closed. (See Interval (mathematics) for an explanation of the bracket and parenthesis set notation.)
• The unit interval Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [0, 1]} is closed in the metric space of real numbers, and the set Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [0, 1] \cap \Q} of rational numbers between Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 0} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1} (inclusive) is closed in the space of rational numbers, but Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [0, 1] \cap \Q} is not closed in the real numbers.
• Some sets are neither open nor closed, for instance the half-open interval Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [0, 1)} in the real numbers.
• In the finite complement topology on a set Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} , the closed sets are precisely the finite subsets of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} together with Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} itself.
• In the discrete topology on a set Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} , every subset of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} is closed.

• The ray Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [1, +\infty)} is closed.
• The Cantor set is an unusual closed set in the sense that it consists entirely of boundary points and is nowhere dense.
• Singleton points (and thus finite sets) are closed in T₁ spaces and Hausdorff spaces.
• The set of integers Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Z} is an infinite and unbounded closed set in the real numbers.
• If Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle f : X \to Y} is a function between topological spaces then Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle f} is continuous if and only if preimages of closed sets in Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Y} are closed in Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X.}
• Each lower set of a preorder is closed in the Alexandrov topology on the preorder.
• Compact sets in a Hausdorff space are always closed. Compactness is a specialization of the idea of compactness that, in cases such as metric spaces, ensures that not only does a set contain all of its limits, but that every sequence has a subsequence with a limit in the set.

Uses and importance

Closed sets are important throughout mathematics because they describe conditions that are preserved under limiting processes. In a metric space, for example, if a sequence of points in a closed set converges in the ambient space, then its limit remains in the set. Thus one can often prove that an object has a desired property by constructing it as a limit of objects that already have that property. Closed sets are therefore ubiquitous throughout mathematical analysis, which involve limiting arguments throughout.

Continuous maps provide one source of closed sets in many applications. A function between topological spaces is continuous if and only if the inverse image of every closed set is closed. Consequently, solution sets of continuous equations are closed: if Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle f:X\to\mathbb R} is continuous, then the zero set Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \{x\in X:f(x)=0\}=f^{-1}(\{0\})} is closed. More generally, level sets and constraint sets defined by continuous equalities are closed.

In algebraic geometry, closed sets are used to encode systems of polynomial equations. In the Zariski topology on affine space, the closed sets are the algebraic sets, that is, the common zero sets of collections of polynomials. So in algebraic geometry, the closed sets, rather than the open sets, are often the primary objects of study.

In functional analysis, closedness is used to control infinite-dimensional limiting processes. A linear subspace of a normed vector space need not be closed. When it is not closed, limits of convergent sequences of vectors in the subspace may leave the subspace. Closed subspaces of Banach and Hilbert spaces are therefore especially important. Similarly, the closed graph theorem characterizes continuity of certain linear operators between Banach spaces by the closedness of their graphs.

See also

• Clopen set
• Closed map
• Closed region
• Open set – Basic subset of a topological space
• Neighbourhood
• Region (mathematics)
• Regular closed set

References

• Template:Dolecki Mynard Convergence Foundations Of Topology
• Template:Dugundji Topology
• Template:Schechter Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations
• Template:Willard General Topology