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Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Like many other ancient numeral systems, Roman numerals are based on the additive principle: a number is written by concatenating individual symbols, each representing a fixed value, and the value of the resulting numeral phrase is the sum of the individual values of each letter. The modern style of Roman numerals uses only seven letters from the Latin alphabet as symbols: Template:Rn meaning 1, Template:Rn meaning 5, Template:Rn meaning 10, Template:Rn meaning 50, Template:Rn meaning 100, Template:Rn meaning 500, and Template:Rn meaning 1000. For example, the Roman numeral Template:Rn represents the number 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 27. When a smaller numeral symbol precedes a larger one, subtraction is implied; for example, the notation Template:Rn represents 5 − 1 = 4 and Template:Rn represents 10 − 1 = 9.
The use of Roman numerals has continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced by the positionalHindu–Arabic numeral system; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals has persisted in some contexts, such as on clock faces. For instance, on the clock of Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:
Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of films and television programmes. Template:Rn signifies 1000 + 1000 − 100 = 1900, so 1912 is written Template:Rn. For the years of the 21st century, Template:Rn indicates 2000, so 2026 (the current year) is written Template:Rn.
Roman numerals use different symbols for each power of ten, and there is no zero symbol, in contrast with the place value notation of Arabic numerals (in which place-keeping zeros enable the same digit to represent different powers of ten).
This allows some flexibility in notation, and there has never been an official or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage varied greatly in ancient Rome and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. The more recent restoration of a largely "classical" notation has gained popularity among some, while variant forms are used by some modern writers as seeking more "flexibility".[1] Roman numerals may be considered legally binding expressions of a number, as in U.S. copyright law before the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (where an "incorrect" or ambiguous numeral in a copyright notice could invalidate a copyright claim or affect the termination date of the copyright period).[2]
A number containing two or more decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples:
The largest number that can be represented in this manner is 3,999 (Template:Rn), but this is sufficient for the values for which Roman numerals are commonly used today, such as year numbers:
For larger numbers (4,000 and larger): Both before and after the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, from ancient times through medieval and modern, users of Roman numerals have used various means to write larger numbers (see § Large numbers below).
The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral. For example, on the numbered gates to the Colosseum, Template:Rn is systematically used instead of Template:Rn, but subtractive notation is used for Template:Rn; consequently, gate 44 is labelled Template:Rn.[14][15]Template:Sps
Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for "1900" (usually written Template:Rn). These vary from Template:Rn for 1910 as seen on Admiralty Arch, London, to the more unusual, if not unique Template:Rn for 1903, on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum.[22]
There are numerous historical examples of Template:Rn being used for 8; for example, Template:Rn was used by officers of the XVIII Roman Legion to write their number.[23][24] The notation appears prominently on the cenotaph of their senior centurionMarcus Caelius (c. 45 BC – 9 AD). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known as Fasti, Template:Rn is used for the 18 days to the next Kalends, and Template:Rn for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the Fasti Antiates Maiores.[25]
There are historical examples of other subtractive forms: Template:Rn for 17,[26]Template:Rn for 18,[27]Template:Rn for 97,[28]Template:Rn for 98,[29][30] and Template:Rn for 99.[31] A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is duodevigintiTemplate:Px2—literally "two from twenty"—while 98 is duodecentum (two from hundred) and 99 is undecentum (one from hundred).[32] However, the explanation does not seem to apply to Template:Rn and Template:Rn, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were septendecim (seven ten) and nonaginta septem (ninety seven), respectively.
The ROMAN() function in Microsoft Excel supports multiple subtraction modes depending on the "Form" setting. For example, the number "499" (usually Template:Rn) can be rendered as Template:Rn ((500-50)+(50-5)+(5-1)), Template:Rn ((500-10)+(10-1)), Template:Rn ((500-5)+(5-1)) or Template:Rn (500-1). The relevant Microsoft help page offers no explanation for this function other than to describe its output as "more concise".[33]
There are also historical examples of other additive and multiplicative forms, and forms which seem to reflect spoken phrases. Some of these variants may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries.
Template:Rn was how people associated with the XXII Roman Legion used to write their number. The practice may have been due to a common way to say "twenty-second" in Latin, namely duo et vice(n)sima (literally "two and twentieth") rather than the "regular" vice(n)sima secunda (twenty second).[35] Apparently, at least one ancient stonecutter mistakenly thought that the Template:Rn of "22nd Legion" stood for 18, and "corrected" it to Template:Rn.[35]
Other numerals that do not fit the usual patterns—such as Template:Rn for 45, instead of the usual Template:Rn—may be due to scribal errors, or the writer's lack of familiarity with the system, rather than being genuine variant usage.
As a non-positional numeral system, Roman numerals have no "place-keeping" zeros. Furthermore, the system as used by the Romans lacked a numeral for the number zero itself (that is, what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1). The word Template:Wikt-lang (the Latin word meaning "none") was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instance Dionysius Exiguus used nulla alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 AD.[36][37] About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter Template:Rn, the initial of nulla or of Template:Wikt-lang (the Latin word for "nothing") for 0, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.[38]
The use of Template:Rn to indicate "none" long survived in the historic apothecaries' system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions.[39]
In later times, the Arabic numeral "0" has been used as a zero to open enumerations with Roman numbers. Examples include the 24-hour Shepherd Gate Clock from 1852 and tarot packs such as the 15th-century Sola Busca and the 20th century Rider–Waite packs.
The base "Roman fraction" is Template:Rn, indicating 1⁄2. The use of Template:Rn (as in Template:Rn to indicate 7+1⁄2) is attested in some ancient inscriptions[40] and in the now rare apothecaries' system (usually in the form Template:Rn):[39] but while Roman numerals for whole numbers are essentially decimal, Template:Rn does not correspond to 5⁄10, as one might expect, but 6⁄12.
The Romans used a duodecimal rather than a decimal system for fractions, as the divisibility of twelve (12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 1⁄3 and 1⁄4 than does a system based on ten (10 = 2 × 5). Notation for fractions other than 1⁄2 is mainly found on surviving Roman coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as. Fractions less than 1⁄2 are indicated by a dot (·) for each uncia "twelfth", the source of the English words inch and ounce; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half), is Template:Rn for semis "half". Uncia dots were added to Template:Rn for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to Template:Rn for whole numbers from six to nine.[41] The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. Five dots arranged like (⁙) (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant.
Each fraction from 1⁄12 to 12⁄12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:
Fractions could also be indicated with a slash through the last letter in a numeral (e.g. Template:Rn), which subtracted the number by an amount less than one (usually 1⁄2).[42]
The modern form can only write numbers up to 3999, and without M in early Roman times only numbers up to 899 could be written. Various schemes have been used over time to write larger numbers.
Using the apostrophus method,[43] 500 is written as Template:Rn, while 1,000 is written as Template:Rn.[21] This system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the Template:Rns and Template:Rns as parentheses) had its origins in Etruscan numeral usage.
File:Roman numerals Bungus 1584-1585.pngPage from a 16th-century manual, showing a mixture of apostrophus and vinculum numbers (see in particular the ways of writing 10,000).
The vinculum came into use in the late Republic,[46] and it was a common alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Imperial era around the Roman world (M for '1000' was not in use until the Medieval period).[47][48] It continued in use in the Middle Ages, though it became known more commonly as titulus,[49] and it appears in modern editions of classical and medieval Latin texts.[50][51]
In an extension of the vinculum, a three-sided box (now sometimes printed as two vertical lines and a vinculum) is used to multiply by 100,000,[52][46] thus:
Vinculum notation is distinct from the custom of adding an overline to a numeral simply to indicate that it is a number. Both usages can be seen on Roman inscriptions of the same period and general location, such as on the Antonine Wall.[53][54]
There are some examples of year numbers after 1000 written as two Roman numerals 1–99, e.g. 1613 as Template:Rn, corresponding to the common reading "sixteen thirteen" of such year numbers in English, or 1519 as Template:Rn as in Frenchquinze-cent-dix-neuf (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages.[55]
In some French texts from the 15th century and later, one finds constructions like Template:Rn for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number as quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (four-score and nineteen).[55] Similarly, in some English documents one finds, for example, 77 written as "Template:Rn" (which could be read "three-score and seventeen").[56]
A medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 as "Template:Rn", that is, "13×1000 + 5×100 + 3×20 + 13".[57]
The system is closely associated with the ancient city-state of Rome and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural.
Rome was founded sometime between 850 and 750 BC, next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italy.
The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌡⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (they had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus, the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)[58]
The symbols ⟨𐌠⟩ and ⟨𐌡⟩ resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ did not. The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but not like the Romans. They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as 𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, 𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the way they spoke those numbers ("three from twenty", etc.); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc. However, they did not write 𐌠𐌡 for 4 (nor 𐌢𐌣 for 40), and wrote 𐌡𐌠𐌠, 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠 and 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠 for 7, 8, and 9, respectively.[58]
The early Roman numerals for 1, 10, and 100 were the Etruscan ones: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩. The symbols for 5 and 50 changed from ⟨𐌡⟩ and ⟨𐌣⟩ to ⟨V⟩ and ⟨ↆ⟩ at some point. The latter had flattened to ⟨⊥⟩ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and soon afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter ⟨Template:Rn⟩.[44]
The symbol for 100 was written variously as ⟨𐌟⟩ or ⟨ↃIC⟩, and was then abbreviated to ⟨Template:Rn⟩ or ⟨Template:Rn⟩, with ⟨Template:Rn⟩ (which matched the Latin letter C) finally winning out. It might have helped that C was the initial letter of CENTUM, Latin for "hundred".
Since the Middle Ages, a "Template:Rn" has sometimes been substituted for the final "Template:Rn" of a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such as "Template:Rn" for 3 or "Template:Rn" for 7. This "Template:Rn" can be considered a swash variant of "Template:Rn". Into the early 20th century, the use of a final "Template:Rn" was still sometimes used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it was written.
Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman numerals". Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as "Template:Rn" for "Template:Rn", or "Template:Rn" for "Template:Rn"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("Template:Rn" for "Template:Rn", or "Template:Rn" for "Template:Rn"). This system was occasionally extended to include letters and numbers from other scripts, with Adriano Cappelli's comprehensive record of scribal numeral forms (published 1912) recording the use of forms of omega and sampi for 800 and 900 respectively, as they represented in the Gothic numeral system, as well as combinations of Latin letters, early Roman symbols and Hindu-Arabic numerals.[42] Although the medieval Roman numeral values for the letters of the Latin alphabet are still listed today in some dictionaries under the entries for those letters, their usage even at the time was inconsistent and never standard, and they are not used in any meaningful capacity in modern times.
Cappelli notes that the T with double dot is only attested for Spanish-suited playing cards and may have been derived from the Gothic form of sampi, which used a T-like symbol to represent 900.
By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus). Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are:
[[File:Carlos IV Coin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Spanish Real using Template:Rn instead of Template:Rn as regnal number of [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles Template:Rn of Spain]].|alt=]]
Generational suffixes, particularly in the U.S., for people sharing the same name across generations, such as William Howard Taft IV. These are also usually read as ordinals.
File:Cambridge Main Public Library 1888.jpgThe year of construction of the Cambridge Public Library (Massachusetts, U.S.), 1888, displayed in "standard" Roman numerals on its facade. The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. Outside reference to the work will use regular Arabic numerals.
In education, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, "grade Template:Rn" is sometimes seen for "grade 9".
In mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using Template:Rn, Template:Rn, Template:Rn, and Template:Rn.[70] These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the x-axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the y-axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph.
In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example, the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the Nazi III Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies.
In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:
Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals.
In sport the team containing the "top" players and representing a nation or province, a club or a school at the highest level in (say) rugby union is often called the "1st Template:Rn", while a lower-ranking cricket or American football team might be the "3rd Template:Rn".
In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are often used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana.
In Ireland, Roman numerals were used until the late 1980s to indicate the month on postage Franking. In documents, Roman numerals are sometimes still used to indicate the month to avoid confusion over day/month/year or month/day/year formats.
Some uses that are rare or never seen in English-speaking countries may be relatively common in parts of continental Europe and in other regions (e.g. Latin America) that use a European language other than English. For instance:
Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e.g. the French xviiie siècle[72] and the Spanish siglo xviii for "18th century". Some Slavic and Turkic languages (especially in and adjacent to Russia) similarly favour Roman numerals (e.g. Russian XVIII век, Azeri XVIII əsr or Polish wiek XVIII[73]). On the other hand, in Turkish and some Central European Slavic languages, like most Germanic languages, one writes "18." (with a period) before the local word for "century" (e.g. Turkish 18. yüzyıl, Czech 18. století).
When typing on Russian typewriters, the Roman-numeral "V" was replaced with "У" because the letter "V" is absent in the Russian Cyrillic alphabet. Additionally, the Roman-numeral "I" was replaced with "1", since this letter had been removed from the Russian alphabet by the 1918 reform of orthography; in typewritten texts, 1 could look as 1 or I depending on the typewriter model. The numbers "II" and "III" were replaced with "П" and "Ш" respectively. For "X", the Cyrillic letter "Х" was used. For example, XVIII was typed as ХУШ. This style is sometimes maintained even when typing on a computer, either out of habit or due to the inconvenience of switching between Latin and Russian script for one or two letters. The numerals "L", "C", "D", and "M" were rarely used in Russian typewritten texts, although some Russian books on typewriting accepted replacing them by the Cyrillic letters "Л", "С", "Д", and "М".[74][75] Roman numerals are quite a common way for writing ordinal numbers in Russian texts. The usage of Roman numerals to indicate occurrences of a recurring grand event in Russian is more common than in English; for example, they were used for Congresses of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Besides the cases mentioned above, Roman numerals are used in Russian for declensions and conjugations, blood types (the notations O, A, B, AB and I, II, III, IV are both well known in Russia), half-years and quarters of a year, etc.
Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: "4.Template:Rn.1789" and "Template:Rn.4.1789" both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789.
Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the week in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,[76] and sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by Template:Rn. Sunday is represented by Template:Rn. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 a.m. to 7 p.m. on weekdays, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24-hour time.
Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering.[77][78] For instance, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138-Template:Rn, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as 138-huis.
In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas have kilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from Template:Rn to Template:Rn for the smaller intervals. The sign Template:Rn/17 thus marks 17.9 km.
A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere.
The "Number Forms" block of the Unicode computer character set standard has a number of Roman numeral symbols in the range of code points from U+2160 to U+2188.[79] This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12. One justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter numbers (such as VIII) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text. The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility only, stating that "[f]or most purposes, it is preferable to compose the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters".[80] The block also includes some apostrophus symbols for large numbers, an old variant of "Template:Rn" (50) similar to the Etruscan character, the Claudian letter "reversed C", etc.[81]
↑This is the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) year in which Wikipedia's cache of this page was last updated, so may be a few hours out of date.
↑Isaac Asimov once mentioned an "interesting theory" that Romans avoided using Template:Rn because it was the initial letters of IVPITER, the Latin spelling of Jupiter, and might have seemed impious.[21] He did not say whose theory it was.
↑Template:Rn = 13 × 100,000 = 1,300,000 and Template:Rn = 32 × 1000 = 32,000, so 'Template:RnTemplate:Rn = 1,332,000. p. is a common abbreviation for passus, paces, the Romans counting a pace as two steps.
↑ 8.08.1Template:Cite Wikisource Book II, Section 4: "... XV milia Atrebates, Ambianos X milia, Morinos XXV milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XVIIII milia; ..." Book II, Section 8: "... ab utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum CCCC et ad extremas fossas castella constituit..." Book IV, Section 15: "Nostri ad unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti belli timore, cum hostium numerus capitum CCCCXXX milium fuisset, se in castra receperunt." Book VII, Section 4: "... in hiberna remissis ipse se recipit die XXXX Bibracte."
↑Rocca, Angelo (1612). De campanis commentarius. Rome: Guillelmo Faciotti. Title of a Plate: "Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata" ("Bell to be sounded by 24 men").
↑Template:Cite Wikisource Book III: "Saturni vocatur, Caesaream Mauretaniae urbem CCLXXXXVII p[assum]. traiectus. reliqua in ora flumen Tader ... ortus in Cantabris haut procul oppido Iuliobrica, per CCCCL p. fluens ..." Book IV: "Epiri, Achaiae, Atticae, Thessalia in porrectum longitudo CCCCLXXXX traditur, latitudo CCLXXXXVII." Book VI: "tam vicinum Arsaniae fluere eum in regione Arrhene Claudius Caesar auctor est, ut, cum intumuere, confluant nec tamen misceantur leviorque Arsanias innatet MMMM ferme spatio, mox divisus in Euphraten mergatur."
↑Bennet, Thomas (1731). Grammatica Hebræa, cum uberrima praxi in usum tironum ... Editio tertia. T. Astley. p. 24. Copy in the British Library; 149 pages. Page 24: "PRÆFIXA duo sunt viz. He emphaticum vel relativum (de quo Cap VI Reg. LXXXX.) & Shin cum Segal sequente Dagesh, quod denotat pronomen relativum ..."
↑"Gallery: Museum's North Entrance (1910)". Saint Louis Art Museum. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2014. The inscription over the North Entrance to the Museum reads: 'Dedicated to Art and Free to All MDCDIII.' These roman [sic] numerals translate to 1903, indicating that the engraving was part of the original building designed for the 1904 World's Fair.
↑Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004). Handbook to life in ancient Rome (2 ed.). Facts On File. p. 270. ISBN0-8160-5026-0.
↑Boyne, William (1968). A manual of Roman coins. p. 13.
↑Degrassi, Atilius, ed. (1963). Inscriptiones Italiae. 13: Fasti et Elogia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato. Fasciculus 2: Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani.
↑Sulpicius à Munscrod, Raphael (1621). Vera Ac Germana Detecto Clandestinarvm Deliberationvm (in Latin). p. 16. Page 16, line 1: "repertum Originale Subdatum IIIXXX Aug. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 41, upper right corner: "Decemb. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 42, upper left corner: "Febr. A. C. MDC.XIX". Page 70: "IIXX. die Maij sequentia in consilio noua ex Bohemia allata....". Page 71: "XIX. Maij.
↑ 35.035.1Template:Cite thesis On page 396 it discusses many coins with "Leg. IIXX" and notes that it must be Legion 22. The footnote on that page says: "The form IIXX clearly reflecting the Latin duo et vicensima 'twenty-second': cf. X5398, legatus I[eg II] I et vicensim(ae) Pri[mi]g; VI 1551, legatus leg] IIXX Prj; III 14207.7, miles leg IIXX; and III 10471-3, a vexillation drawn from four German legions including 'XVIII PR'—surely here the stonecutter's hypercorrection for IIXX PR.
↑Bede: The Reckoning of Time. Translated by Wallis, Faith. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. 2004 [725]. ISBN0-85323-693-3.
↑Baker, Peter S.; Lapidge, Michael, eds. (1995) [1016]. Byrhtferth's Enchiridion. Early English Text Society. ISBN978-0-19-722416-8.
↑Jones, C. W. (ed.). Opera Didascalica. Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina. 123C.
↑ 42.042.1Cappelli, Adriano (1912). "Numerazione romana". Lexicon abbreviaturarum : dizionario di abbreviature Latine ed Italiane (in Italian). Ulrico Hoepli. pp. 413–421. Retrieved 21 March 2025.
↑ 45.045.1Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. Translated by David Bellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood, Ian Monk. John Wiley & Sons.
↑ 46.046.1Dilke, Oswald Ashton Wentworth (1987). Mathematics and measurement. Reading the past. London: British Museum Publications. p. 15. ISBN978-0-7141-8067-0.
↑ 55.055.1Gachard, M. (1862). "II. Analectes historiques, neuvième série (nos CCLXI-CCLXXXIV)". Bulletin de la Commission royale d'Historie. 31 (3): 345–554. doi:10.3406/bcrh.1862.3033. Page 347: Lettre de Philippe le Beau aux échevins..., quote: "Escript en nostre ville de Gand, le XXIIIIme de febvrier, l'an IIIIXXXIX [quatre-vingt-dix-neuf = 99]." Page 356: Lettre de l'achiduchesse Marguerite au conseil de Brabant..., quote: "... Escript à Bruxelles, le dernier jour de juing anno XVcXIX [1519]." Page 374: Letters patentes de la rémission ... de la ville de Bruxelles, quote: "... Op heden, tweentwintich ['twenty-two'] daegen in decembri, anno vyfthien hondert tweendertich ['fifteen hundred thirty-two'] ... Gegeven op ten vyfsten dach in deser jegewoirdige maent van decembri anno XV tweendertich [1532] vorschreven." Page 419: Acte du duc de Parme portant approbation..., quote: "Faiet le XVme de juillet XVc huytante-six [1586].".
↑Salter, Herbert Edward (1923). Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis 1483–1521. 76. Oxford Historical Society. 544 pages. Page 184 has the computation in pounds:shillings:pence (li:s:d) x:iii:iiii + xxi:viii:viii + xlv:xiiii:i = iiixxxvii:vi:i, i.e. 10:3:4 + 21:8:8 + 45:14:1 = 77:6:1.
↑Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'imprimerie nationale (in French) (6th ed.). Paris: Imprimerie nationale. March 2011. p. 126. ISBN978-2-7433-0482-9. On composera en chiffres romains petites capitales les nombres concernant : ↲ 1. Les siècles.
↑Burska, Katarzyna. "cyfry arabskie a zapis wieku" [Arabic digits when formatting centuries]. Poradnia językowa Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego (in Polish). University of Łódź.
↑Березин, Борис Иванович (1984). Школа машинописи (in Russian). М.: Легкая и пищевая промышленность. p. 85.
Aczel, Amir D. 2015. Finding Zero: A Mathematician's Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers. 1st edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Goines, David Lance. A Constructed Roman Alphabet: A Geometric Analysis of the Greek and Roman Capitals and of the Arabic Numerals. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1982.
Houston, Stephen D. 2012. The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. "Roman numerals and the abacus." Classica et medievalia 26: 147–60.
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