Economy of Mongolia
The economy of Mongolia has historically been based on herding and agriculture, but mining has become the dominant sector of the economy. Mongolia possesses major deposits of copper, coal, gold, molybdenum, and other minerals, which account for much of the country’s industrial output and exports.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990–91 and the end of Soviet aid, Mongolia entered a severe recession. Economic growth resumed in the late 1990s despite setbacks from natural disasters and the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997.[1]
From the 2000s onward, rapid expansion of the mining sector drove strong economic growth.[2] However, the economy remains highly dependent on commodity exports and demand from China, making it vulnerable to fluctuations in global mining markets.[3]
Economic history
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Socialist era
[edit | edit source]On the eve of the People's Revolution of 1921, Mongolia had an underdeveloped, stagnant economy based on nomadic animal husbandry. Farming and industry were almost nonexistent; transportation and communications were primitive; banking, services, and trade were almost exclusively in the hands of Chinese or other foreigners. Most of the people were illiterate nomadic herders, and a large part of the male labour force lived in the monasteries, contributing little to the economy. Property in the form of livestock was owned primarily by aristocrats and monasteries; ownership of the remaining sectors of the economy was dominated by the Chinese or other foreigners.[4]
Industry accounted for 7 percent of Mongolia’s Net Material Product (NMP) in 1950, but for 35 percent of the total by 1985, and trade increased from 10 percent in 1950 to 26 percent by 1985. Agriculture, including herding, which accounted for 68 percent of NMP in 1950, had declined to 20 percent by 1985. In 1960, 61 percent of the employed worked in the agricultural sector, but by 1985 only 33 percent earned their livelihoods in that sector. GDP figures for Mongolia record growth throughout the 1980s. As late as 1988, the annual increase in GDP amounted to 5.1 percent.[5]
The rapid political changes of 1990–91 marked the beginning of Mongolia's efforts to develop a market economy, but these efforts have been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing deterioration of the economy of the former Soviet Union. Prior to 1991, 80% of Mongolia's trade was with the former Soviet Union, and 15% was with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) countries. Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power plants.[6]
The former Soviet Union served as the primary market for Mongolian industry. In the 1980s, Mongolia's industrial sector became increasingly important. By 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of material products, compared to 18% from agriculture. However, minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large proportion of the country's exports. Principal imports included machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials.
In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with non-communist Asia and the West, and tourism in Mongolia developed. As of 1 January 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices.
Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform. Privatization of small shops and enterprises has largely been completed in the 1990s, and most prices have been freed. Privatization of large state enterprises has begun. Tax reforms also have begun, and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in late 1991.
Transition to a market economy
[edit | edit source]Between 1990 and 1993, Mongolia suffered triple-digit inflation, rising unemployment, shortages of basic goods, and food rationing. During that period, economic output contracted by one-third. As market reforms and private enterprise took hold, economic growth began again in 1994–95. Unfortunately, since this growth was fueled in part by over-allocation of bank credit, especially to the remaining state-owned enterprises, economic growth was accompanied by a severe weakening of the banking sector. GDP grew by about 6% in 1995, thanks to largely to a boom in copper prices. Average real economic growth leveled off to about 3.5% in 1996–99 due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the 1998 Russian financial crisis, and worsening commodity prices, especially copper and gold.
Mongolia's gross domestic product (GDP) growth fell from 3.2% in 1999 to 1.3% in 2000. The decline can be attributed to the loss of 2.4 million livestock in bad weather and natural disasters in 2000. Prospects for development outside the traditional reliance on nomadic, livestock-based agriculture are constrained by Mongolia's landlocked location and lack of basic infrastructure. Since 1990, more than 1,500 foreign companies from 61 countries have invested[when?] a total of $338.3 million in Mongolia. By 2003 private companies made up 70% of Mongolian GDP and 80% of exports.[7]
Until recently, there have been a very few restrictions on foreign investments during most of Mongolia's post-socialist period. Consequently, mining industry's contribution to FDI increased to almost 25% in 1999 from zero in 1990.[8]
Economic development since 2008
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Mongolia’s economy was heavily affected by the 2008 financial crisis because of its dependence on commodity exports and trade with China.[9] The sharp fall in global metal prices, particularly copper prices, severely reduced export revenues and slowed economic growth.[9] By 2009, the Mongolian Stock Exchange TOP-20 index had fallen to a historic low following a speculative boom in 2007.[10] The economy was further hit by the 2009–2010 Zud, which caused widespread livestock deaths and damaged Mongolia’s important cashmere sector.[9] According to estimates from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, real GDP growth fell from 8% in 2008 to 2.7% in 2009, while exports shrank from US$2.5 billion to US$1.9 billion after several years of rapid expansion before the crisis.[9]
The country subsequently experienced a mining-driven economic boom tied to major projects such as Oyu Tolgoi. During this period, investment banks and financial analysts promoted Mongolia as a high-growth frontier market. The term "Wolf Economy" or "Asian Wolf" was popularised by Renaissance Capital in a 2009 report that predicted Mongolia could become a new Asian tiger economy due to its mineral wealth and rapid projected growth.[11][12]
Investor optimism weakened significantly after 2012 amid growing concerns over resource nationalism and foreign investment policy. A proposed acquisition of coal miner SouthGobi Resources by the Chinese state-owned company Chalco was blocked by the Mongolian government in 2012.[13] In response to the controversy, Mongolia passed the Strategic Entities Foreign Investment Law, which imposed stricter review requirements on foreign investments in sectors deemed strategic. Although the law was later repealed and replaced, it damaged investor confidence and contributed to a broader economic slowdown during the 2010s.[13] The decline in investor sentiment coincided with a sharp reversal in mining valuations. By 2015, SouthGobi Resources had lost approximately 98% of the market value it had reached during the peak of the mining boom in 2012.[14]
Mongolia’s economy slowed again in the early 2020s during COVID-19 pandemic and supply-chain disruptions linked to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Economic growth in 2022 was projected at around 1%, though international institutions anticipated a rebound in 2023 driven by increased commodity exports.[15] A new commodity export boom was expected following the opening of additional rail connections to China and the expansion of underground copper production at Oyu Tolgoi. Despite renewed growth, Mongolia continued to face structural economic challenges in the 2020s, including heavy dependence on mining exports, inflation, rising debt levels, and vulnerability to external shocks such as disruptions to Russian fuel supplies.[16]
In November 2025, Mongolia’s parliament approved the 2026 state budget, projecting revenue of ₮31.93 trillion and expenditure of ₮32.98 trillion, resulting in a deficit of approximately 1% of GDP.[17] According to Mongolia Weekly, the budget included measures to curb non-essential spending, adjust public-sector wages in line with inflation, and prioritise ongoing investment projects.[18]
Sectors
[edit | edit source]Agriculture
[edit | edit source]Banks
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The banking sector is highly concentrated, with five banks controlling about 80% of financial assets as of 2015:[19] Shares of Mongolia's five largest domestic banks are to be offered to the public for the first time on the soon-to-be partially privatized Mongolian Stock Exchange.[20]
Commercial banks
[edit | edit source]- KhasBank - KhasBank is a community development bank and microfinance institution headquartered in Ulaanbaatar, with a nationwide network of 100 offices and 1309 staff as of June 2012.
- Khan Bank - Khan Bank has its central office in Ulaanbaatar, where 5 branches are located. It has 24 regional branch offices throughout the country, each of which supervises an additional 15 to 25 smaller branches in its area, totaling 512.[21]
- Golomt Bank - Golomt Bank started in 1995 and now manages around 23% of the assets in the domestic banking system. Recently begun its stock sales.
- Trade and Development Bank - TDB was formed in 1990 and is thus the oldest bank in Mongolia. It has a network of 28 branches and settlement centers, 60 ATMs, 1300 POS terminals, and Internet/SMS banking throughout the country.[22] Foreign banks like ING are breaking into the market.
- Other lesser banks are: M-Bank, State bank, Capitron Bank, Arig Bank, Bogd Bank, and Chinggis Bank.
In terms of access to credit, Mongolia ranked 61st out of 189 economies in accordance with 2015 Ease of Doing Business survey.[23] However, Mongolia had one of the highest banking branch penetration rates in the world at 1 bank branch per 15,257 residents as of May 2015.[19]
Investment banks
[edit | edit source]With a strengthening capital market environment, many foreign and local investment institutions have begun to establish themselves in Mongolia. The most prominent local agencies include: TDB Capital Archived 31 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Eurasia Capital, Monet Investment Bank, BDSec, MICC Archived 18 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, and Frontier Securities.
Energy
[edit | edit source]Mining
[edit | edit source]Telecommunications
[edit | edit source]Tourism
[edit | edit source]Transport
[edit | edit source]Environment
[edit | edit source]As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands[24] of factories in Ulaanbaatar and a sharp increase in individual motorization[25] has resulted in severe air pollution. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and, less recently, efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain.
Macro-economic data
[edit | edit source]The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2026. Inflation below 5% is in green.[26]
See also
[edit | edit source]- List of companies of Mongolia
- Mongolia and the International Monetary Fund
- Mongolia and the World Bank
- List of Mongolian provinces by GDP
- List of regions of Mongolia by Human Development Index
- Corruption in Mongolia
- Poverty in Mongolia
References
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- ↑ Montsame News Agency. Mongolia. 2006, Foreign Service Office of Montsame News Agency, ISBN 99929-0-627-8, p. 72
- ↑ philip (23 March 2014). "Mongolia's economic prospects and challenges". East Asia Forum Quarterly. 6 (1): 3–5. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
- ↑ "Mongolia: Economy". Asian Development Bank. 2 September 2014. Archived from the original on 2 June 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
- ↑ Sukachevin, Padej; Leimone, John E.; Rozwadowski, F.; Milne, Elizabeth (15 March 1991), "The Mongolian People's Republic: Toward a Market Economy", The Mongolian People's Republic, International Monetary Fund, retrieved 1 November 2024
- ↑ "Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists - California Scholarship". m.california.universitypressscholarship.com. doi:10.1525/california/9780520243996.001.0001/upso-9780520243996. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
- ↑ Robert L. Worden, ed. (1991). Mongolia: A Country Study (PDF). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 163–164. Retrieved 11 July 2025.
- ↑ Montsame News Agency. Mongolia. 2006, Foreign Service Office of Montsame News Agency, ISBN 99929-0-627-8, p. 67
- ↑ Enerelt Enkhbold, 2014. "The Impact of SEFILM on the Valuation of Mining Companies Archived 8 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine". Монголын Нийгэм-Эдийн Засгийн Өнөөгийн Байдал, Тулгамдсан Асуудлууд. Илтгэлүүдийн эмхэтгэл, pp. 240–253
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "Mongolia Quarterly review for February 2009" (PDF). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ↑ "Монголын Хөрөнгийн Бирж". Mongolian Stock Exchange. Archived from the original on 27 December 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ↑ "Strategy Mongolia: Country overview, Equity research, 11 December 2009" (PDF). www.petromatad.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
- ↑ "Mongolian Wolf to Be 'Unstoppable'". biznetwork.mn / Bloomberg. 14 December 2009. Archived from the original on 18 January 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 "The Jailing of Foreigners in Mongolia Is Unnerving the Business Community". Time. 5 February 2015.
- ↑ "Turquoise Hill deal to exit Mongolia miner SouthGobi falls through". Reuters. 1 May 2015.
- ↑ Adiya, Amar (22 June 2022). "Mongolia's Economy Plunges Amid Border Disruptions and Growing Food Shortages". Mongolia Weekly. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ "Mongolia FAQ". www.mongoliaweekly.org. 21 September 2024. Retrieved 21 September 2024.
- ↑ Adiya, Amar (12 November 2025). "Mongolian Parliament Passes the 2026 Budget Amid Promises of Restraint". Mongolia Weekly. Retrieved 24 November 2025.
- ↑ Adiya, Amar (12 November 2025). "Mongolian Parliament Passes the 2026 Budget Amid Promises of Restraint". Mongolia Weekly. Retrieved 24 November 2025.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Aaron Batten, Poullang Doung, Enerelt Enkhbold, Gemma Estrada, Jan Hansen, George Luarsabishvili, Md. Goland Mortaza, and Donghyun Park, 2015. The Financial Systems of Financially Less Developed Asian Economies: Key Features and Reform Priorities Archived 5 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine. ADB Economics Working Paper Series No. 450
- ↑ Adiya, Amar (25 May 2022). "What You Need To Know About Mongolia and What's On the Horizon in H2 2022". Mongolia Weekly. Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
- ↑ "Mission statement". Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
- ↑ "Introduction: Trade and Development Bank of Mongolia". Trade and Development Bank of Mongolia. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011.
- ↑ "Doing Business in Mongolia - World Bank Group". Archived from the original on 6 December 2011. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ↑ Gheorghe, Adrian (February 2018). MONGOLIA'S AIR POLLUTION CRISIS: A call to action to protect children's health (PDF). p. 15.
- ↑ "Breathing easy for the future: Mongolia needs better long-term measures against air pollution". asia.fes.de. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
- ↑ "Mongolia". www.imf.org. Retrieved 5 May 2026.
External links
[edit | edit source]- (in English and Mongolian) Official site of the Ministry of Finance
- (in English and Mongolian) Official government site of the Bank of Mongolia - the central bank Archived 28 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Mongolia Archived 15 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine CIA World Factbook
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