Politics of Mongolia

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Template:Infobox political system Template:Politics of Mongolia

The politics of Mongolia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary system with a multi-party representative democracy.[1] While some sources have incorrectly described Mongolia as a semi-presidential system, its 1992 Constitution clearly defines it as a parliamentary republic.[2]

The government is headed by the Prime Minister of Mongolia, who is appointed by and accountable to the State Great Khural (Parliament). Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The President of Mongolia serves as the head of state with limited authority, primarily in the areas of foreign policy and national security, as well as being the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The President also has veto power over laws passed by Parliament, though this can be overridden by a two-thirds parliamentary majority.

Legislative power is vested in the State Great Khural, a unicameral parliament. Judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, and is independent of the executive and legislature, as guaranteed by the Constitution.

Mongolia held its first democratic elections in 1990, following a peaceful 1990 revolution.[3][4] From 1921 to 1990, Mongolia was a communist single-party state under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party.[5] Historically, Mongolian politics has been influenced by its two large neighbors, Russia and China.[6][7]

History

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Socialist period and single party government (1921-1990)

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The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party ruled the Mongolian People's Republic for its entire existence

Shortly after the Mongolian Revolution of 1921, Mongolia adopted a one-party socialist republican constitution modeled after the Soviet Union; only the communist party — the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) — was officially permitted to function. Mongolian politics was closely monitored and directed by Kremlin. Any political opposition was brutally repressed, and government officials who opposed the Soviet influence were murdered, executed or sent to labour camps. During the communist regime, collectivisation of livestock, introduction of modern agriculture, limited industrialisation and the urbanisation were carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

Democratic revolution (1990)

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Further information: Mongolian Revolution of 1990

The perestroika in the Soviet Union and the democracy movements across Eastern Europe had a profound impact on Mongolian politics. On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy demonstration was held in front of the Youth Cultural Centre in Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of the Mongolian People's Republic.[8] During the demonstrations, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, one of the leading pro-democracy leaders, announced the establishment of the Mongolian Democratic Union, a pro-democracy non-governmental organization and political movement.[9]

Over the next months activists, led by 13 leaders, continued to organise demonstrations, rallies, protests and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes.[10] Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside. Efforts made by trade unions across the country for democracy had a significant impact on the success of the movement.[11][12][13] After demonstrations of tens of thousands of people in freezing weather in the capital city and provincial centres, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the MPRP gave way to the pressure and entered negotiations with the leaders of the democratic movement in March.[14] Jambyn Batmönkh, chairman of the Politburo, decided to dissolve the Politburo and to resign on 9 March 1990,[15][16] paving the way for the first multi-party elections in Mongolia.[10] In the 1990 parliamentary elections, the MPRP retained its majority in both chambers with relatively minor opposition party gains. As a result, Mongolia became the first country in Asia to successfully transition into democracy from communist rule.[17]

Post-revolution development (1990-1992)

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As a result of the democratic movement that led to 1990 Democratic Revolution, the constitution was amended, removing reference to the MPRP's role as the leading political force in the country, legalising opposition parties and creating a standing legislative body and the office of president in May 1990.

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President Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat ratifying the Constitution of Mongolia on 13 January 1992

Mongolia's first multi-party free and fair elections for the People's Great Khural (upper chamber) were held on 29 July 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Khural first commenced on 3 September and elected the president (MPRP), the vice-president (MSDP), the prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the State Little Khural (lower chamber). The vice president was also the speaker of the Little Khural.

In November 1991, the People's Great Khural began discussion on a new constitution and adopted it on 13 January 1992. The Constitution of Mongolia entered into force on 12 February 1992. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government via the creation of a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural, with 76 members. The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be directly elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat won the first direct presidential election, running as the joint candidate of the democratic opposition.

As the supreme legislative organ, the State Great Khural is empowered to enact and amend laws, regarding domestic and foreign policy, to ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency by the constitution. The State Great Khural meets semi-annually. The parliamentary election holds place every four years, but the electoral system varied in each election. The current electoral system is based on plurality-on-large with 29 electoral districts. The Speaker of the State Great Khural is elected by the members of the parliament, and one deputy speaker is appointed by each political party or coalition with at least 10 seats in the parliament.

Political developments

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Since the 1990s

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Until June 1996, the predominant party in Mongolia was the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The country's first democratically elected president was Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat, who served from September 1990 to June 1997. Ochirbat was a member of the MPRP until the 1993 presidential election, when he was nominated as a candidate by the opposition Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MNDP) and the Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP).[18]

Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, as the chairman of the MNDP, co-led the Democratic Union Coalition to its first historic victory in the 1996 parliamentary elections, winning 50 out of 76 parliamentary seats. The Democratic Union, between the MNDP, the MSDP and the Mongolian Green Party, was in power from 1996 to 2000.[19] Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan, election manager of Democratic Union, worked as the prime minister from 7 July 1996 to 23 April 1998. In 1998, a clause in the constitution was removed that prohibited members of parliament to take cabinet responsibility.[20] Thus on 23 April 1998, the parliament elected (61–6) Democratic chairman and caucus leader Elbegdorj as the prime minister.[21] Due to the minority MPRP's demand, Elbegdorj lost a confidence vote at the Parliament and triggered a government crisis.[22]

He stayed as caretaker prime minister until a successor was nominated by the State Great Khural. Elbegdorj was succeeded by Janlavyn Narantsatsralt (MNDP) on 9 December 1998.[23] Janlavyn Narantsatsralt worked as the prime minister for eight months until his resignation in July 1999. Rinchinnyamyn Amarjargal became Democratic Party's new chairman and served as the prime minister from 30 July 1999 to 26 July 2000. In 1997, Natsagiin Bagabandi (MPRP) was elected as the country's president in the 1997 presidential election. He was re-elected as president in 2001 presidential election and served as the country's president until 2005.

Since the 2000s

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As a result of the 2000 parliamentary elections, the MPRP was back in power in the parliament and the government as well as the presidency. The vote in the 2004 parliamentary elections was evenly split between the two major political forces – the ruling MPRP and the opposition Motherland Democratic Coalition between the Democratic Party (DP), the Motherland Party and the Civil Will–Republican Party.[24] Neither side had the enough seats to form a government. Thus, a coalition government between the coalition and the MPRP was established. On 20 August 2004, Elbegdorj became the prime minister for the second time as the leader of the grand coalition government.[25]

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Flag of Mongolia waving on top of the Government Palace, 2009

In the 2005 presidential election, former prime minister and parliamentary speaker Nambaryn Enkhbayar (MPRP) was elected as the country's president in a four-way race. Later in 2006, the MPRP exitted the coalition government, causing Elbegdorj's cabinet to collapse in January 2006. Consequently, the MPRP formed its own cabinet with minor parliamentary parties. In the 2008 parliamentary elections, the MPRP won 45 of the 76 seats while the DP won 27 seats with the three remaining seats going to minor parties and an independent. The landslide victory of the MPRP triggered concerns of electoral fraud amongst the opposition. Soon on 1 July 2008, a peaceful demonstration against vote rigging turned into a riot that led to the burning of the MPRP headquarters, looting of several nearby businesses, and the declaration of a 4-day state of emergency. After a month-long political deadlock, the MPRP formed a coalition government with the DP despite having enough seats to form a government alone in parliament.

On 24 May 2009, in the 2009 presidential election, the DP candidate Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj made a victory over incumbent President Nambaryn Enkhbayar.[26] Elbegdorj was sworn into office on 18 June 2009 and became Mongolia's first non-MPRP member president and the first to obtain a Western education.[27][28]

Since the 2010s

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In 2010, the former communist MPRP reverted its name to its original 1921 name, the Mongolian People's Party (MPP), and shifted from democratic socialism to social democracy. After his defeat in the 2009 presidential election and party leadership change, ex-president Nambaryn Enkhbayar established a new political party, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, after receiving the old name of Mongolian People's Party from the Supreme Court in 2010. Enkhbayar became the chairman of the new party.[29]

In June 2012, the DP won the 2012 parliamentary elections and became the plurality in the parliament with 34 seats. The DP established a coalition government with Civil Will-Green Party (2 seats), and Justice Coalition (11 seats) of the new MPRP and the Mongolian National Democratic Party. The MPP secured only 26 seats. Incumbent president Elbegdorj was re-elected in the 2013 Mongolian presidential election on 26 June 2013.[30][31] Between 2012 and 2016, the DP had been in power holding both the presidency and the government.

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State Great Khural, the parliament of Mongolia, during the opening of its spring session in March 2014

Due to economic downfall, the party suffered a landslide defeat in that year's parliamentary election. Despite receiving over 30% of the total constituency vote, the DP was reduced to only 9 seats. The MPP won a supermajority of 65 seats. Former governor of Selenge Province Jargaltulgyn Erdenebat became the prime minister of an all-MPP cabinet. The now-opposition DP narrowly retained the presidency in the 2017 presidential election,[32] in which Khaltmaagiin Battulga was elected to succeed outgoing two-term president Elbegdorj. The defeat of MPP chairman and presidential nominee Miyeegombyn Enkhbold in the 2017 election led to an infighting within the party. The infighting led to the resignation of prime minister Erdenebat and appointment of deputy prime minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh, who later became the party chairman. Since 2016, Mongolia had a divided government, with the MPP having an overwhelming majority in the State Great Khural, while the DP held the presidency.[33]

Since the 2020s

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On 24 June 2020, the incumbent MPP was re-elected to the parliament with another landslide victory.[34] Prime minister Khürelsükh continued to head the cabinet during the COVID-19 pandemic.[34] Protests over the treatment of a coronavirus patient in early 2021 led to the resignation of prime minister Khürelsükh and his cabinet. Luvsannamsrain Oyun-Erdene (MPP) became the new prime minister on 27 January 2021. He represented a younger generation of leaders who had studied abroad. Later, in June 2021, former prime minister Khürelsükh, the candidate of the ruling MPP, became the country's sixth democratically elected and current president after winning the 2021 presidential election.[35] Incumbent president Battulga was barred from running for a second term due to constitutional amendments in 2020. In August 2022, Prime Minister Oyun-Erdene made a cabinet reshuffle to get legislative support in pushing his liberalization and privatization agenda forward.[36]

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The 2025 Mongolian protests, which caused a party turmoil within the MPP in late 2025. Within a year, Mongolia had three prime ministers.

In the 2024 parliamentary election, Oyun-Erdene was re-appointed as prime minister after the MPP won a reduced majority. The opposition DP won 42 of the 126 seats in the expanded State Great Khural. Remaining seats were won by the HUN Party (8), the Civil Will–Green Party (4), and the National Coalition (4). Oyun-Erdene formed a coalition government between the MPP, the DP and the HUN party. This government lasted until mid 2025, when a series of anti-government youth protests caused prime minister Oyun-Erdene to lose a motion of confidence in parliament. Unseated legislator and former speaker Gombojavyn Zandanshatar succeeded Oyun-Erdene and formed a coalition government without the DP in June 2025.

The question of the next MPP chairman within the party provoked a party infighting between two camps allied with incumbent Zandanshatar and speaker Dashzegviin Amarbayasgalan. The month-long crisis was defused in November after both politicians pulled their candidacy infavor of party unity. Nyam-Osoryn Uchral was elected the MPP chairperson and succeeded parliamentary speaker Amarbayasgalan, who resigned in October. The appointment of MPP chairman Uchral as speaker was opposed by the DP, which later boycotted all parliamentary procedures in March 2026 to force his resignation. Prime minister Zandanshatar resigned soon after to prevent the political deadlock amidst an economic uncertainty caused by the 2026 Iran war. Uchral succeeded Zandanshatar and currently heads a coalition government between the MPP, the HUN party, and the National Coalition.

Executive branch

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Template:Office-table |President |Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh |Mongolian People's Party |25 June 2021 |- |Prime Minister ||Nyam-Osoryn Uchral |Mongolian People's Party |30 March 2026 |}

President

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Main article: President of Mongolia
File:Official presidential portrait of Ukhnaagiin Khurelsukh.jpg
Official portrait of President Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh

Presidential candidates are nominated by parties with parliamentary representation in the State Great Khural. The president is elected by popular vote for a non-renewable six-year term. The president is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, and head of the National Security Council. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister (upon the recommendation by the dominant political party), call for the government's dismissal (the two-thirds majority of vote needed in the State Great Khural), initiate legislation, veto all or parts of a legislation (the State Great Khural can override the veto with a two-thirds majority),[37][38] and issue decrees (effective with the prime minister's countersignature). In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the Speaker of the State Great Khural exercises presidential power until the inauguration of a newly elected president. Although the president has limited executive powers, they represent the nation internationally, sign international treaties and conventions, and advise the cabinet on important socioeconomic issues. After being elected, the president-elect must give up their party affiliations to act as the "symbol of unity".

In June 2021, former Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh won the presidential election. He was inaugurated on 25 June 2021.[39]

Cabinet

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Main articles: Prime Minister of Mongolia and Government of Mongolia
File:Government Palace, Ulaanbaator.jpg
The Government Palace of Mongolia in Ulaanbaatar

The Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister of Mongolia, has a four-year term. The president appoints the prime minister after each parliamentary election and appoints the members of the Government on the recommendation of the prime minister. If the president is not able to reach a consensus with the prime minister on the appointment of the Cabinet within a week, the issue is submitted the State Great Khural.[2] Dismissal of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after the State Great Khural voted for a motion of censure.

The prime minister holds most of the executive powers in Mongolian politics. Unlike the president, the prime minister is chosen by the party (or coalition) with the majority of seats in the State Great Khural. Typically, the prime minister leads a major political party and generally commands the majority in the State Great Khural. Cabinet of Nyam-Osoryn Uchral

Parliament

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Main article: State Great Khural

The State Great Khural (Template:Langx, meaning 'State Great Assembly') is a unicameral legislative body with 126 seats. The State Great Khural wields some of the most important powers in Mongolian politics. Parliamentary elections are held every four years, and 126 representatives are chosen. The current electoral system is based on plurality-at-large with 29 electoral districts across the country. According to the Constitution, every Mongolian citizen over the age of 18 can participate in elections, or run for government offices including the State Great Khural. Although there are several controversies (such as the right to vote of prisoners and Mongolian nationals abroad), the US government-funded agency Freedom House considers Mongolia to be a free representative democracy.

The State Great Khural is charged with the passage of legislation, approval of treaties, confirmation of the Government ministers and hearings of various government officials. Members of the State Great Khural have immunity against court trials, and the right to inspect government documents as an accountability on the Government's activities.

The Parliament of Mongolia[40]
Name Position Political Party
Mr Sandagiin Byambatsogt Chairman of the State Great Khural   Mongolian People's Party
Mr Jadambyn Bat-Erdene Deputy Chairman of the State Great Khural   Mongolian People's Party
Mr Bökhchuluuny Pürevdorj Deputy Chairman of the State Great Khural   Democratic Party
Mr Jigjidiin Batjargal Leader of the Mongolian People's Party Caucus in the Parliament   Mongolian People's Party
Mr Odongiin Tsogtgerel Leader of the Democratic Party Caucus in the Parliament   Democratic Party

Political parties and elections

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File:ArdchilsanGer.JPG
Ger set up by the Democratic Party for an election campaign in Khövsgöl aimag, 2006
Main articles: List of political parties in Mongolia and Elections in Mongolia

Mongolian politics is currently dominated by two major political parties: the Mongolian People's Party (160,000 members) and the Democratic Party (150,000 members).[41] After the 1990 Democratic Revolution, then-ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) transitioned into a centre-left social democratic party. Since the fall of the Soviet regime, the MPRP has been able to maintain a high level of nationwide support, especially among rural voters.

In late 2010, the MPRP changed its name to the Mongolian People's Party (MPP) along with modifications in the party manifesto and leadership; however, former president Nambaryn Enkhbayar's faction and other conservative members departed from the party and created a new political party taking the original name, Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party. The splinter MPRP would become the primary third-party force from 2010 to 2021, until its merger with the MPP.

Contrary to the MPP, the Democratic Party (DP) was established relatively recently, in December 2000, following the merger of five opposition parties led by the leaders of the 1990 Democratic Revolution. The DP is a centre-right liberal conservative political party.

In late 2018 and 2019, a major corruption scandal involving SMEs and the government occurred. High-ranking officials from both aisles were allegedly exposed to be part of a broader cabal between the two parties. Subsequently, major anti-government protests erupted, leading to a significant increase in public distrust for the political establishment and support for opposition minor parties. Despite the landslide victory of the MPP in the 2020 elections, the vote share for minor parties had substantially increased. The Right Person Electorate Coalition, led by the National Labour Party (NLP), won several seats in both the State Great Khural and municipal councils. In the 2021 presidential election, the NLP candidate received 21% of the vote, beating the Democratic candidate, who had won 9%. The NLP changed its name to the HUN Party and its position from centre-left to centre-right politics in 2022.

In the 2024 parliamentary election, five parties were elected to the State Great Khural, making the current parliament the most politically diverse and the first five-party parliament to be ever convened in Mongolia. As of October 2025, there are 37 political parties recognised by the Supreme Court.[42] However, critics argue that there are no significant ideological differences between the political parties on issues such as economic policies and governance.

2021 presidential election

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Main article: 2021 Mongolian presidential election

2021 Mongolian presidential election

2024 parliamentary election

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Main article: 2024 Mongolian parliamentary election

2024 Mongolian parliamentary election

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The new constitution empowered a Judicial General Council (JGC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the JGC, confirmed by the State Great Khural, and appointed by the president. The Supreme Court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGKh decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court of Mongolia, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for a six-year term, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

The constitution states that the Judicial branch of the government should be independent of any outside influences and government officials. However, in 2019, the State Great Khural passed a law that allows the National Security Council (a non-constitutional advisory body to the president) to dismiss judges who are "dishonest", effectively removing their immunity that meant to prevent outside interventions in court decisions. Various civil movements, international organisations, and prominent individuals (including the former president Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj) have denounced the decision, sparking a constitutional crisis lasting 8 months. A constitutional amendment, made in November 2019, reverted this decision and empowered the prime minister whilst also limiting the presidential term from a maximum of two four-year terms to a single six-year term.

Administrative divisions

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Main article: Citizens' Representatives Khurals of Mongolia

Mongolia is divided into 21 Aimags (provinces) and one municipality/city (khot): Arkhangai, Bayan-Ölgii, Bayankhongor, Bulgan, Darkhan-Uul, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Govi-Altai, Govisümber, Khentii, Khovd, Khövsgöl, Ömnögovi, Orkhon, Övörkhangai, Selenge, Sükhbaatar, Töv, Uvs, Zavkhan, and the city of Ulaanbaatar.

Local elections are held every four years in all 21 provinces and the capital, electing representatives to local councils called the Citizens' Representatives Khural. After each election, the newly elected local councils recommend a governor and their office, and meet semi-annually to discuss issues in their province, recommend, and supervise the local government. However, the prime minister has the power to choose provincial governors. Unlike federal republics like Germany and the United States, local governments in Mongolia hold limited authority, and are generally tasked with implementing the central government's policies.

On the next lower administrative level, representatives are elected in provincial subdivisions and urban sub-districts in Ulaanbaatar.

The latest local elections took place on 11 October 2024. A total of 17149 candidates ran for 8167 seats in provincial and county councils. The Mongolian People's Party won a majority in 14 out of 21 provincial councils in Mongolia, while the Democratic Party took the remaining seven provinces.[43][44]

Provincial councils
Council Available seats MPP DP HUN Independent
Ulaanbaatar 45 40 5
Arkhangai 41 28 12 1
Bayan-Ölgii 41 18 23
Bayankhongor 35 23 12
Bulgan 29 15 14
Govi-Altai 29 11 18
Govisümber 25 21 4
Darkhan-Uul 41 24 16 1
Dornogovi 35 27 8
Dornod 35 20 14 1
Dundgovi 25 16 9
Zavkhan 35 19 15 1
Orkhon 41 21 20
Övörkhangai 41 29 12
Ömnögovi 35 13 21 1
Sükhbaatar 29 9 20
Selenge 41 21 19 1
Töv 41 20 21
Uvs 35 18 15 2
Khovd 41 14 27
Khövsgöl 41 26 15
Khentii 35 17 18

See also

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Further reading

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  • S. Narangerel, Legal System of Mongolia, Interpress, 2004

Notes

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References

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  1. ↑ "The Constitution of Mongolia (1992)". LegalInfo. Retrieved 6 January 2025.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Odonkhuu, Munkhsaikhan (12 February 2016). "Mongolia: A Vain Constitutional Attempt to Consolidate Parliamentary Democracy". ConstitutionNet. International IDEA. Retrieved 6 January 2025. Mongolia is officially a parliamentary system, despite the popularly elected president and limited executive powers.
  3. ↑ "Election Watch". Journal of Democracy. 3 (4): 130–133. 1992. ISSN 1086-3214.
  4. ↑ "Mongolia: Freedom in the World 2024 Country Report". Freedom House. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  5. ↑ Batbayar, Tsedendambyn (1993). "Mongolia in 1992: Back to One-Party Rule". Asian Survey. 33 (1): 61–66. doi:10.2307/2645287. ISSN 0004-4687.
  6. ↑ Ginsburg, Tom (1995). "Political Reform in Mongolia: Between Russia and China". Asian Survey. 35 (5): 459–471. doi:10.2307/2645748. ISSN 0004-4687.
  7. ↑ Rahul, Ram (1978). "Mongolia between China and Russia". Asian Survey. 18 (7): 659–665. doi:10.2307/2643524. ISSN 0004-4687.
  8. ↑ G., Dari (5 December 2011). "Democracy Days to be inaugurated". news.mn (in Mongolian). Archived from the original on 10 January 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  9. ↑ "Tsakhia Elbegdorj". Community of Democracies Mongolia. Archived from the original on 10 June 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Ahmed and Norton, Nizam U. and Philip (1999). Parliaments in Asia. London: Frank Cass & Co.Ltd. p. 143. ISBN 0-7146-4951-1. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  11. ↑ Baabar (16 November 2009). "Democratic Revolution and Its Terrible Explanations". baabar.mn (in Mongolian). Archived from the original on 27 December 2012. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  12. ↑ "Democracy's Hero: Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj". Washington: The International Republican Institute. 21 July 2011. Archived from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  13. ↑ "Mongolia Celebrates 20th Anniversary of Democratic Revolution". The International Republican Institute. 11 December 2009. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  14. ↑ Wilhelm, Kathy (12 March 1990). "Mongolian Politburo resigns en masse". The Free Lance Star. Fredericksburg, VA. p. 4. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  15. ↑ "Entire Mongolian Politburo resigns". Lawrence Journal-World. Lawrence, KS. 12 March 1990. pp. 8A. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  16. ↑ Ch., Munkhbayar (13 March 2013). "What was the Mongolian democratic revolution?". dorgio.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  17. ↑ Gamba, Ganbat (2004). "The Mass Public and Democratic Politics in Mongolia" (PDF). Taipei: Asian Barometer. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  18. ↑ "Report on Mongolian Presidential Election: June 6, 1993". IFES. p. 6. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
  19. ↑ Lawrence, Susan V. (14 June 2011). "Mongolia: Issues for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  20. ↑ "Constitution of Mongolia". World Intellectual Property Organization. 13 January 1992. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  21. ↑ "April 1998". rulers.org. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  22. ↑ Sanders, Alan J.K. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Third edition. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. pp. xviii. ISBN 978-0-8108-7452-7. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  23. ↑ Kohn, Michael (2006). Dateline Mongolia: An American Journalist in Nomad's Land. Muskegon, MI: RDR Books. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-57143-155-4. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  24. ↑ Ethan, Zuckerman (2006-01-13). "It's never to cold to riot in Ulaanbaatar!". Ethan Zuckerman. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  25. ↑ "Ts. Elbegdorj is Prime Minister (August 20, 2004)". Open Society Forum. 20 August 2004. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2013.
  26. ↑ "Mongolia profile - Leader". BBC News. 2011-11-03. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  27. ↑ "Tsakhiagiyn Elbegdorj". www.globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  28. ↑ "Mongolia's new president sworn in". euronews.com. 18 June 2009. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  29. ↑ "Former MPRP is reborn and former President named chairman". Business-Mongolia.com. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  30. ↑ "Incumbent Mongolian president wins 2nd term on pro-Western, anti-graft platform". The Washington Post. Washington. 27 June 2013. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
  31. ↑ Khuder (10 July 2013). "Ts. Elbegdorj takes oath". Montsame News Agency. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  32. ↑ Welle, Deutsche. "Mongolia votes for new president in divisive election | DW | 26.06.2017". DW.COM. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  33. ↑ "Mongolia Just Chose a New President. What Now?". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Weekly, Mongolia (2020-07-10). "Prime Minister Unveils New Cabinet in Mongolia, Prioritizing Continuity and Economic Recovery". Mongolia Weekly. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  35. ↑ "Ex-Mongolian prime minister Khurelsukh wins presidential election in landslide". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2023-03-13. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  36. ↑ Weekly, Mongolia (2022-09-10). "Mongolia Unveils New Pro-Business Cabinet". Mongolia Weekly. Retrieved 2025-12-23.
  37. ↑ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
  38. ↑ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). French Politics. Palgrave Macmillan Journals. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. Retrieved 23 December 2015. Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland and Senegal.
  39. ↑ "Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh", Wikipedia, 2022-05-23, retrieved 2022-05-27
  40. ↑ "Parliament". parliament.mn. Retrieved 2020-12-13.
  41. ↑ "Улс төрийн намын бүртгэл" [Political party registration]. www.supremecourt.mn. Retrieved 2020-12-13.
  42. ↑ "Улс төрийн намын бүртгэл" [Political party registration]. www.supremecourt.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2025-10-27.
  43. ↑ "Аймаг, Нийслэлийн ИТХ-ын Сонгуулийн ДҮН" [Election results for Provincial and Capital City Citizens' Representative Hurals]. ikon.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 2025-11-14.
  44. ↑ "ИТХ-ын сонгуулийн үр дүнг дөрвөн графикаар дүрслэх нь" [Visualizing the results of the Citizens' Representative Hural elections through four graphs]. Unread Today (in Mongolian). 2024-10-15. Retrieved 2025-11-14.
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